This study investigated the use of digital design as a tool for assessing attitudes among male sex offenders by exploring how artistic expression can reveal complex emotional landscapes related to their crimes. The study utilized digital paintings, a type of digital design that involves creating artwork using digital tools and software. Digital painting tools allowed the researcher to simulate traditional painting techniques, while benefiting from the flexibility and versatility of digital media. It is essential to comprehend and address offenders’ attitudes towards sexual crimes to create prevention and rehabilitation plans that work. The effectiveness of digital paintings that illustrate the consequences of sexual crimes on offender, victim and the offender’s family was examined in this study. The study examined whether exposure to these visual representations could result in a quantifiable decrease in supporting attitudes toward sexual crimes by comparing participants' pre-test and post-test attitudes using the Crime Pics II tool. There is little research on how visual cues can change offenders' attitudes and perceptions, despite the urgent need for creative evaluation techniques in this delicate field. This study adds to the continuing conversation on crime prevention and offender rehabilitation by demonstrating how well digital design can change perceptions of sexual crimes. A total of 61 male convicts of defilement and rape were purposively sampled for the study. The study utilized an art exhibition and Rapid Serial Visual Presentation format to repeatedly display digital paintings to participants aged 18-45. The artwork produced in both monochrome and polychrome schemes and in realist and surrealist styles was designed to elicit immediate emotional and cognitive responses. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of the participants' responses and reflections provided important insights into their attitudes, including sentiments of regret and guilt as well as a sophisticated awareness of the wider effects of their behaviour. Monochrome paintings tended to portray darker emotions, whereas polychrome paintings showed a wider range of emotions, including hope and recognition of the harm done. The findings demonstrate that digital design can effectively support offenders' emotional processing and self-reflection, demonstrating its potential as a helpful tool in rehabilitative and assessment contexts.

Statistics on defilement and rape in Kenya show alarming patterns of gender-based violence. Over 5,000 rape incidents were reported in Kenya in 2020, up from previous years [1]. The Directorate of Criminal Investigations reported over 10,000 occurrences of defilement in 2020, the with girls under the age of 18 making up the majority of the victims (National Crime Research Centre, 2021). These figures demonstrate urgent robust policies to address sexual offending.

In Kenya, social stigma, inadequate mental health resources and a legal framework that often prioritizes punitive measures over rehabilitation make it difficult to address sexual offences. Programs that focus on psychological evaluation and provision of emotional support for offenders are often lacking in the criminal justice system. Rather, a large number of people are imprisoned without getting the psychological treatments necessary to address the root causes of their criminal behaviour. This disparity emphasises how urgently creative methods that promote comprehension and ease change are needed. In forensic contexts, art therapy has emerged as a viable approach to enhancing self-reflection and emotional expression. Art is a useful tool for criminals who might find it challenging to communicate since it enables people to explore complicated emotions and ideas through nonverbal ways.

The integration of creative techniques, including art therapy to help individuals in forensic settings express their emotions and reflect on themselves has gained popularity in recent years. Insights that might not surface through traditional therapeutic procedures are made possible by the nonverbal medium that art therapy provides for participants to explore and express their thoughts and feelings. Digital media's accessibility and adaptability can boost motivation and engagement, therefore incorporating it into this framework offers new ways of engaging offenders. Understanding the attitudes of male sex offenders is crucial for effective rehabilitation, prevention strategies and a reduction in recidivism rates. Perceptions of oneself and social reintegration are two aspects of healing that can be greatly impacted by attitudes towards one's crime. Offenders' development as rehabilitators is significantly influenced by their perceptions of their crimes, particularly their sentiments of guilt, sorrow and responsibility. The complex emotions and cognitive distortions that criminals frequently exhibit may not be adequately captured by conventional evaluation techniques. Digital arts are presented in this study as a novel approach to assessing these attitudes and expedite the process of recovery and reintegration into society.

While countries like the USA, Canada and Australia have reported successful use of Art based therapies for offender rehabilitation, such approaches are minimal in Kenya. Most art-based rehabilitation approaches have relied on the traditional arts, with scanty details on digital design. Understanding attitudes of offenders is essential for developing effective intervention strategies since re-offending is more likely for offenders who continue to have pro-criminal beliefs. This study therefore sought to use digital design to assess attitudes of male sex offenders towards sexual crimes through repeated viewing. The selected themes focused on the impacts of sexual crimes on the offender's self-image, the victim and the offender's family. By examining the interplay between colour schemes, style, the emotional content and thematic choices in the digital paintings, the study sought to provide insights into the complex psychological landscape of male sex offenders. This exploration shed light on how these visual representations can reveal the offenders' perspectives on their actions and the resulting outcomes.

The study sampled male sex offenders aged 18-45 years, convicted of rape and defilement. Digital paintings presented in an exhibition format and complemented by a rapid serial visual presentation were designed to elicit emotional and cognitive responses following repeated presentations. This novel approach facilitated self-examination and dialogue while acting as a therapeutic exercise and attitude assessment tool. The study findings contribute to the fields of art therapy and forensic psychology by demonstrating the efficacy of digital design in facilitating emotional processing and understanding attitudes. Additionally, the study creates opportunities for further investigation into the ways in which artistic expression might improve results and guide therapeutic approaches for people navigating the intricacies of criminal behaviour.

2.1. The Context of Sexual Offending in Kenya

Kenya has seen an alarming rise in sexual offences, with high rates of defilement and rape being documented. Sexual violence instances rose by 28% between 2020 and 2021, indicating a concerning trend made worse by social norms and stigma-related underreporting and fear of reprisals [2]. One in three Kenyan women had been the victim of sexual violence at some point in their lives [3]. In addition, the COVID-19 epidemic exacerbated these problems, resulting in a rise in sexual offences and domestic violence with the Directorate of Criminal Investigations reporting a 35% rise in cases during lockdowns. Statistics on defilement and rape in Kenya reveal alarming trends of gender-based violence. Over 5,000 rape incidents were reported in Kenya in 2020, up from previous years [1]. Increased cases of defilement are especially disturbing. In the year 2020, the Directorate of Criminal Investigations reported over 10,000 cases of defilement, with girls under the age of 18 making up the majority of the victims [3]. These figures demonstrate urgent need for robust policies and mitigations to address sexual offending in Kenya.

Legal changes and awareness initiatives are part of the efforts to stop these crimes, yet problems still exist since victims' support networks are insufficient. The Kenyan judicial system frequently lacks comprehensive rehabilitative programs designed specifically for sex offenders, despite an increasing recognition of the need for preventive measures. This context underscores the importance of exploring innovative techniques for comprehending and addressing the attitudes of sex offenders

2.2. Understanding Attitudes in Offenders

Research on offender attitudes suggests that cognitive distortions such as minimization, denial and blame can influence criminal behaviour and hinder rehabilitation [4]. Understanding these attitudes is essential for developing effective intervention strategies. Maruna emphasizes the importance of narrative identity in rehabilitation, positing that helping offenders reconstruct their narratives can lead to positive changes in behaviour and self-perception. Beliefs, emotions and behavioural intentions towards oneself, others and particular behaviours, including criminal activity are all included in one's attitude.

Attitudes towards crime are greatly influenced by cultural norms and values. Offenders' explanations for their behaviour can be influenced by cultural notions of masculinity and power relations in many civilizations. According to research conducted in Kenya, traditional ideas about masculinity have the power to normalize aggressive behaviour, which in turn can affect the attitudes of offenders [5]. Designing successful interventions that speak to the experiences and attitudes of offenders requires an understanding of these cultural influences

Recidivism rates and attitudes towards crime have been shown to be correlated in numerous studies. Re-offending is more likely for offenders who continue to have pro-criminal beliefs, such as that their acts are acceptable or that victims are worthy of suffering harm [6]. It has been demonstrated that cognitive-behavioral therapies that focus on and alter these attitudes lower recidivism by encouraging empathy and responsibility, underscoring the importance of attitude modification in rehabilitation initiatives.

Developing successful rehabilitation and preventative measures requires an understanding of offenders' attitudes. Numerous psychological theories and empirical research shed light on the ways in which attitudes affect criminal behaviour and rehabilitation prospects. An example is the Cognitive Dissonance Theory.

Figure 1

Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger, 1957); Source: [6]. A theory of cognitive dissonance, Evanston, IL: Row &Peterson

Dissonance is the existence of contradictory thought patterns and can occur within or between groups of attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours [7]. As a result, people tend to connect their ideas and methods of thinking with their cognitive abilities (Cooper, 2012) [8]. Therefore, anytime there is a difference in attitudes or actions, this dissonance needs to be addressed by aligning one of the components with a change. This study used attitude as the idea of focus, despite Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance having three pillars. When attitudes and actions are inconsistent and all other factors are taken into account, the attitude will shift to fit the behaviour. The theory explains the contradictions that arise when offenders are presented with information that contradicts their beliefs. It encourages the minimization of disagreements by altering attitudes, such as by introducing new cognitions that are consistent with the one being referred to, or by downplaying the importance of the components being referred to.

2.3. The Role of Art in Forensic Settings

Art has gained recognition as a valuable therapeutic intervention in forensic settings, where individuals may struggle to express complex emotions and experiences related to their offences. This section explores existing literature on the use of art therapy for expression and assessment in these contexts, highlighting its efficacy and potential benefits.

Art has emerged as a successful tool for encouraging emotional expression and introspection. According to studies, people who might find it difficult to express themselves verbally can use art as a potent medium to express complicated feelings and [9]. In Kenya, where mental health resources are scarce, art therapy offers a good substitute for involving criminals in rehabilitation. By providing a safe space for offenders to explore their emotions and attitudes, the visual arts can aid in bridging communication gaps.

Art offers a different way for people to express their emotions and experiences in forensic settings where traditional verbal communication may be restricting due to psychological hurdles, trauma or stigma [10]. Deeper emotional inquiry is made possible by the visual forms of art which can get past verbal defences.

A study which looked at the effects of art therapy on prisoners showed that participants frequently produced works of art that reflected emotions of loneliness, shame and guilt [9]. In addition to enabling them to communicate these nuanced feelings, the therapy process gave them a sense of empowerment and relief. People could learn more about their emotional states and start the healing process by using art to externalise their sentiments.

Additionally, art therapy can be a useful instrument for psychiatric evaluation in forensic settings. Participants' artwork might reveal important information about their emotional and psychological states through its themes and content. One study, for instance, examined the digital artwork created by male offenders [11]. A more complex view of the individuals' emotional landscapes was provided by the researchers' identification of recurrent themes of conflict, loss and regret. By offering a more comprehensive picture of the individual's mental health, such qualitative data can be used in conjunction with conventional evaluation techniques. Self-reflection, which is crucial for processing emotions, is promoted by the visual arts. Participants can safely and systematically explore their thoughts and feelings through the creation or analysis of art. People who engaged in digital drawing expressed more self-awareness and understanding of their emotional experiences [12]. A deeper awareness of oneself and new perspectives can result from the act of converting emotions into visual form, which promotes emotional healing and progress.

Art therapy has also been found to encourage self-reflection, which is pivotal for rehabilitation and personal growth. People in forensic settings frequently reported feeling more self-aware and having a better understanding of their own behaviours as a result of creating art [13]. Participants could face challenging emotions and gain a better knowledge of their behaviour and how it affects other people by putting their ideas and feelings into pictorial representations. In a related study, participants who produced artwork that reflected the consequences of their conduct demonstrated heightened awareness of their impact on victims and their families [14]. The rehabilitation process may benefit greatly from this increased empathy, which motivates criminals to accept accountability for their actions.

Incorporating culturally relevant aspects into art therapy can improve its efficacy in forensic contexts. It is crucial to comprehend cultural backgrounds in order to provide effective therapy [15]. People can engage with art therapy more profoundly when culturally relevant symbols, themes, and narratives are used; this improves emotional expression and creates a sense of community.

2.4 Digital Design as a Medium for Assessment

Digital design has become an invaluable tool for therapeutic and assessment functions in a variety of contexts such as mental health, education and rehabilitation. Innovative methods of self-reflection, emotional expression and attitude and behaviour evaluation are made possible by the incorporation of technology into art rehabilitation and therapy. A number of studies demonstrate the effectiveness of digital arts in these settings.

Digital arts have shown potential in forensic contexts for understanding the attitudes and behaviors of offenders. The use of digital art as a technique to evaluate the emotional states of male offenders was examined [11]. The researchers were able to gain insights into the offenders' views and self-perceptions regarding their crimes by examining the themes and emotional content of the participants' digital artworks. This approach offered a non-invasive examination technique to supplement conventional psychological testing. It is impossible to ignore the cultural significance of digital arts in therapeutic settings. It is significance to incorporate local cultural components into digital art therapy [15]. The researchers discovered that participants felt more connected to the therapy process when they were able to include culturally relevant symbols and themes into their digital works. The efficacy of digital arts as a therapeutic and diagnostic tool is increased by this cultural sensitivity, which makes it more relevant and approachable for people from different backgrounds.

The emergence of digital technology has increased art therapy's potential and made it more widely available and adaptable. Digital arts can increase participant motivation and involvement emphasizing the potential of digital media in therapeutic practices [14]. Digital arts and design provide a dynamic means of exploring complicated emotions and attitudes by enabling offenders to create and alter visuals. Leveraging on technology, digital art therapy promotes self-discovery and emotional expression. In contrast to traditional art techniques, those who created art digitally reported more self-awareness and improved emotional discharge [13]. Participants were able to explore complex emotions in a non-threatening manner by using software to produce visual representations of their feelings. According to the study's findings, digital art can be a useful therapeutic tool, especially for people who might have trouble communicating verbally.

Digital arts can be used to evaluate attitudes and opinions. Digital storytelling is a means of comprehending the stories of people with criminal histories [16]. Participants produced digital narratives that depicted their decisions, life experiences and behavioral thoughts. Insights about their views on crime and personal accountability was revealed by the analysis. This method gave evaluators valuable qualitative data to guide rehabilitation techniques in addition to facilitating self-reflection. Digital art and other visual media can greatly improve introspection. Research has shown that digital drawing has a therapeutic effect on self-reflection [12]. Digital drawings that reflected the participants' emotions and experiences were encouraged. The results showed that people were able to externalize internal problems through visual representation, which resulted in a deeper understanding of their attitudes and behaviors. The researchers pointed out that because it promotes accountability and a sense of ownership over one's story, this procedure may be especially helpful for offenders.

For therapeutic procedures to be successful, engagement is essential. Participants' motivation rose when digital media was used in art therapy, particularly for younger people [14]. According to the study, art-making became more accessible and pleasurable with the use of digital tools like tablets and graphic design software, which increased participation rates. People may find it simpler to examine their feelings and attitudes toward their behavior as a result of this increased participation, which can improve the therapy process.

2.5 Art and Expressive Therapies in Sex Offender Rehabilitation

Multidisciplinary studies published in publications on education, neurobiology, and criminal justice show how arts education and practices develop psychological, social, and individual capacities (Bembenutty, White & Dibenedetto, 2016; Baker, 2013) [17, 18]. Art-based programs indirectly contribute to desistance, claims Cheliots (2010) [19]. The idea of secondary desistance covers some of these contributions.

The potential of art therapy, particularly digital arts, in culturally relevant rehabilitation has been acknowledged. These therapies can help offenders process their emotions and reflect on their attitudes and behaviour by giving them a creative outlet. Art offers a different way to express feelings in settings where stigmatization makes it difficult to discuss sexual offenses. According to studies, creative arts can help people become more self-aware and accountable [9]. Therefore, adding culturally appropriate creative engagements like storytelling or traditional crafts and digital arts can improve the therapeutic outcomes greatly. Using digital arts is an appropriate rehabilitation tool for educating the offenders regarding sexual offense and its repercussions. Existing conventions and attitudes that support violence can be challenged by programs that educate people about consent, healthy relationships and the consequences of sexual offences. Including community leaders in educational programs can aid in changing public perceptions and advancing an accountable and respectful society [20]. This strategy promotes wider social transformation in addition to filling in the knowledge gaps of the offenders.

For both the artist and the audience, the visual arts can arouse empathy and a sense of connection. People can relate to artwork that depicts their own struggles or experiences, which promotes empathy and understanding. People may feel less emotionally alone as a result of this shared experience. Offenders who produced digital artwork that expressed their feelings said they felt better understood by facilitators and linked to their peers, which improved their emotional processing and accountability [11].

2.6. Culturally Relevant Approaches to Rehabilitating Sex Offenders in Kenya

Offenders' behaviours and perceptions are shaped by cultural attitudes towards masculinity. Men in Kenya are raised to embrace traditional ideas of masculinity that place an emphasis on control and power, which frequently results in excuses for violent conduct [5]. Ineffective rehabilitation outcomes occur due to interventions that do not acknowledge cultural norms that do not resonate with sex offenders [15].

In Kenya, culturally relevant rehabilitation techniques are crucial for successful rehabilitation. It is crucial to incorporate local cultural settings and values into mental health interventions [15]. This study aims to improve the relevance and efficacy of rehabilitative practices by developing a culturally sensitive framework that speaks to the experiences and perspectives of offenders through the use of digital design. In order to effectively address the distinct social, economic and cultural contexts that sex offenders live in, rehabilitation strategies that are culturally sensitive are important. The complexities of sexual offences in Kenya are intricately linked to societal norms, cultural beliefs and economic considerations. It is essential to take these factors into account while creating and implementing intervention techniques in order to successfully rehabilitate sexual offenders.

It has been demonstrated that participating in visual arts activities improves self-awareness and speeds up emotional processing [13]. This can help offenders get a better understanding of their acts and the consequences of their choices. A culturally sensitive method of treating complicated thoughts associated with crime is to use visual arts to provoke introspection in a Kenyan setting, where talking about mental health and emotions might be stigmatized. This approach not only promotes comprehension but also empathy for victims, both of which are essential for recovery. Community involvement is essential to the success of rehabilitation. Local community-engaged programs can increase understanding and dialogue on sexual violence concerns while giving offenders a sense of accountability and support. For instance, it has been demonstrated that restorative justice procedures involving victims, criminals and community members promote recovery and reintegration [21]. Offenders can gain empathy for victims and a greater understanding of the consequences of their conduct by involving the community in the rehabilitation process.

This research utilized the one group pretest-post-test quasi-experimental design. Data from both qualitative and quantitative sources were integrated using a mixed method research technique (Creswell, 2014) [22]. Focus groups were used to collect qualitative data, and an attitude questionnaire was used to collect quantitative data. The goal was to determine whether exposure to digital artwork improved the attitudes of male sexual offenders towards crime. A pre-test was used to ascertain the participants' initial views regarding sexual offences, and a post-test was used to ascertain any changes that transpired following many viewings of the digital paintings. The administration of a questionnaire based on the Crime Pics II Attitude to Offending Behaviour scale (ATOB) was used to characterise the pre and after intervention periods. The questionnaire utilised four measures of attitude namely: G- scale (General attitude towards offending), A- Scale (Anticipation of Re-Offending), V- scale (Victim Hurt Denial) and E- scale (Evaluation of Crime as Worthwhile).

The study was carried out in Nairobi West Prison (NWP), a medium-security prison for male criminals located in Nairobi City County's Langata district. Convicts of rape and defilement between the ages of 18 and 45 years were chosen to take part in this comprehensive study. According to Levinson and Shields (2012) [23], this age group has been classified as high-risk offenders. Respondents were selected based on their present state of rehabilitation and willingness to participate in the study. Purposive sampling was used to select 61 respondents who had served less than two years in jail. This was done to pick responders who may not have changed much because of their brief incarceration.

For this study, a total of twenty-four (24) digital paintings were created by the researcher and all twenty-four (24) were chosen using total population sampling. Twelve (12) realist and twelve (12) surrealist paintings were produced as a result of the exploration of two (2) topics, each of which dealt with the effects of crime on the victim, the sexual offender and the offender’s family. Typical case sampling was used to select the themes for exploration using digital painting tools and software. The color schemes and styles used to create the digital paintings were also chosen through the use of purposive sampling. According to Sharma (2017) [24], this gave the researcher the rationale to draw analytical conclusions from the sample under study. The paintings were further divided into monochrome and polychrome color schemes. Participants were shown the digital paintings repeatedly over a period of five weeks using Rapid Serial Visual Presentation Format (RSVP) and in an exhibition. This was done with one day intervals to avoid overexposure, which could have resulted in boredom. The first posttest of attitudes was carried out immediately after the conclusion of the exposure sessions, while the second posttest was done after fourteen days. Whereas the first posttest measured changes in attitude among the participants, the second posttest measured whether the change in attitudes could be sustained long after the exposure to digital paintings.

4.1. Pre and Post tests attitudes for G Scale (General attitude towards offending)

At posttest 1, a significant shift in attitudes was noted. Between the pre-test and post-test, tests on the paired differences were determined to be significant. All of the t-statistics' p-values were below 0.05. Posttest 2 results further demonstrate that the change in attitudes was sustained.

4.2. Pre and Post-tests attitudes for A- Scale (Anticipation of Re-Offending)

Attitudes changed significantly, according to posttest 1. The results of tests on the paired differences between the pre-test and post-test showed substantial differences. All of the t-statistics' p-values were below 0.05.

4.3. Pre and Post-tests attitudes for V- scale (Victim Hurt Denial)

A notable change in attitudes was observed at posttest 1. Tests on the paired differences between the pre-test and post-test were found to be significant. The p-values for every t-statistic were less than 0.05. The results of Posttest 2 also show that the attitude change lasted.

4.4. Pre and Post-tests attitudes for E- scale (Evaluation of Crime as Worthwhile)

Attitudes changed significantly at the posttest. The p-values of the t-statistics were all less than 0.05, indicating that the tests on the paired differences between the post-tests and the pre-test were significant.

This study investigated how male sex offenders' attitudes towards crime were impacted by digital artwork. The study measured attitudes before and after viewing the artworks using the Crime Pics II tool [25]. Studies using Crime Pics II tool demonstrated its effectiveness in capturing emotional and cognitive responses from different offender populations [25]. Significant attitude shifts were noted in scales G, A, and E, suggesting that the digital paintings had an effective impact on certain attitudes regarding criminal behaviour. There was a noticeable change on Scale G, which measures general attitudes towards offending, indicating that the visual stimuli caused people to reevaluate their preconceived notions [26]. This research supports the idea that art may encourage introspection and critical thinking by underscoring the potential of digital art as a medium for facilitating conversations about criminal behaviour and its effects on society [27].

However, Scale V, which focuses on empathy for victims, showed no discernible change in attitudes, despite the favorable improvements recorded in the other scales. The effectiveness of digital design in promoting empathy among offenders is brought to question by the insignificant attitude change in this scale. Research suggest that visual stimuli can affect cognitive engagement, but it is frequently more difficult to evoke emotional or sympathetic reactions [28]. The discrepancy presented in this study implies that although the artwork may have cognitive or logical resonance, it may not successfully elicit emotional or empathetic reactions, pointing to the necessity of a comprehensive strategy for changing attitudes [29].

Exploring digital design and art as tools for measuring attitudes among male sex offenders is an innovative approach in psychology and psychology. This methodology leverages on the ability of visual media to measure cognitive and emotional responses, offering complex insights into offender attitudes that conventional approaches may overlook. Digital design and artistic expression offer a more open and engaging environment that facilitate participants to express complex emotions and ideas that might not be possible in traditional survey formats. Researchers can design immersive experiences that evoke real responses and insights about attitudes and beliefs by utilizing interactive digital platforms [30]. Visual Imagery has been shown to impact offenders' attitudes and decision-making. Self-reported attitudes toward violence and criminal behavior have been found to be affected by exposure to violent imagery, indicating that visual representations have the power to change perceptions [30]. Studies focusing on the use of art therapy as a rehabilitation tool suggest that artistic expression can assist criminals in thinking critically about their behavior and attitudes while promoting conversations about feelings associated with their crimes [31].

The overall findings of this study contribute to the growing body of literature on the application of design and art in therapeutic and rehabilitative settings. Research indicates that digital design has the potential to significantly alter attitudes among male sex offenders [32]. This suggests that these tools might be integrated in rehabilitation programs that aim to lower recidivism rates. The limitations in empathy that have been noted, however, highlight the need for deeper investigation into the ways that various visual art forms and other interventions could improve emotional engagement and result in more thorough attitude changes in the offender population.

Digital arts integration into therapeutic methods is a relatively new but exciting field of study. Digital media can increase participation, especially in situations where traditional art supplies might not be available [14]. Using digital tools for artistic expression might draw participation from a wider demographic in Kenya, where technology is becoming more widely available, boosting the effectiveness and inclusivity of the rehabilitation process. For therapeutic and assessment purpose, digital arts offer a flexible and powerful medium, especially when it comes to expressing emotions and comprehending attitudes. Reviewed studies demonstrate how digital arts can improve participation, encourage introspection and yield rich qualitative data for evaluation. Further research is required to examine the long-term effects and applications of digital art therapy, particularly in offender rehabilitation programs, as the discipline evolves.