The term ethnobotany refers to the study of the relationships occurring between humans and plants of a place [ 1,2]. The use of wild plants, especially in medicine, has very ancient links with humans [ 3,4]. The earliest evidence of man’s interest in plants dates to the prehistoric period. The remnants of several plants were found in a Neanderthal female’s tomb in Iraq dated 50,000 years ago, and most of these plants are still used for medicinal purposes [ 5,6]. This relationship between humans and plants has been strengthened during history, and men started looking for plants to feed, heal, build, raise animals, do magic rituals, etc. Obviously, the most significant field in which plants are utilized, until now, is the medicinal one. In fact, about 13,000 plants are currently used in the therapeutic field all over the world. It should be noted that plants are at the base of every therapy only in countries where traditional medicine is still practiced (e.g., Africa and Asia), whereas this is no longer the case for the ones that utilize modern medicine practices [ 7]. Therefore, it is clear how important is to preserve the local ethnobotanical knowledge, which can surely provide further uses in other research’s fields and represent a socio-cultural heritage for many territories [ 3,4,8,9]. The Mediterranean basin is one of the richest territories for biological diversity in the world and it is estimated to host about 25,000 plant species, many of which are considered endemic [ 10,11]. Furthermore, in this area, there are many islands, and the biggest one is Sicily, which is located in the center of the Mediterranean basin. This island is also considered a biodiversity hotspot [ 12]. Due to its plant richness, people from Sicily have developed deep knowledge on what are the uses of different plants in many fields. In the last years, several ethnobotanical studies have been carried out in Italy to enhance the traditional knowledge of a place [ 9,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23]. The most common traditional plant uses studied in Sicily were those related to food and medicine [ 24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36]. Recent floristic data estimated that there are about 3,500 taxa on the island and that 442 of them are endemic [ 37]. Despite this floristic richness, new species are continuously described [ 38,39,40,41]. As concerns the ethnobotanical studies carried out in the north-eastern part of Sicily, they are mainly focused on Nebrodi mountains area [ 42,43,44]. Instead, we were not able to find any papers or significant research on this topic for the area of the Peloritani Mountains. However, it is worth mentioning that some ancient pharmacopeias describe the medical uses of the various plants growing in this territory [ 45,46,47]. The Peloritani Mountains are a remarkable center of speciation and plant refuge, and its phytogeographical framework coincides with the limit given by structural geologists [ 48]. The purpose of this article is to study and report the ethnobotanical knowledge present in the Peloritani territory, through the case study of a survey carried out in a small and rural community in the province of Messina. Nowadays, this knowledge is a prerogative of elderly people, whereby it is in danger of disappearing, as well as being compromised by globalization and social change.

The Peloritani Mountains are located in the north-eastern part of Sicily. They are mainly made of metamorphic rocks, such as gneiss, schistose and phylladic alternations, and represent a section of the Calabria-Peloritani Arc Province [ 49,50]. Among the highest peaks, as well as the most important from a floristic viewpoint, we can mention: Montagna Grande (1374 m), Rocca Novara (1340 m), Pizzo Vernà (1287 m), Monte Poverello (1279 m), and Monte Scuderi (1253 m). Our ethnobotanical surveys were carried out in a small and rural suburb of Messina named Tipoldo counting approximately 300 inhabitants. It is located in the southern sector of the city, at an altitude of 400 m a.s.l. between Mili San Pietro and Larderia Superiore (Figure 1).

Until 1960, there was no road and the residents used mule tracks and country trails through the hills to reach the towns near the village. The territory surrounding Tipoldo has a considerable extension of dry stonewall terraces (in local vernacular dialect named “armacie”), once cultivated mainly to host vineyards, olive groves and orchards, but today they are partially abandoned. The natural vegetation of the area consists mainly of evergreen Mediterranean maquis, oaks, and public forest plantations. According to Rivas-Martínez [ 51,52] classification, the Peloritani area is characterized by a Mediterranean pluvi-seasonal oceanic bioclimate. Moreover, the thermo-pluviometric data from the Santo Stefano di Briga meteorological station (Messina) allowed to produce the thermo-udogram of Walter and Lieth (Figure 2) [ 53].

In particular, the average annual temperature is 16.5 °C and the average annual precipitation is 1014.6 mm, distributed mainly from January to March, and from October to December. From a bioclimatic point of view, the territory presents a bioclimate with meso-Mediterranean thermotype with sub-humid upper ombrotype [ 54,55]. From a geological viewpoint, Tipoldo is characterized by metamorphic rocks attributable to the Kabilo-Calabridi Unit [ 56].

Field surveys and research activities were carried out in the village from February 2017 to May 2018. This study area was chosen for its traditional plant use that is still well preserved in the memory of older residents. Semi-structured interviews were used to gather information [ 57,58], allowing us to personalize the questions while preserving spontaneity. The interviews were conducted separately through informal chats, except in rare cases where more than one participant took part in the interview. In the first part of the interview, there were no plant specimens presented to the informants, and no images to identify the plants. In a second step, we showed to the residents wild plants collected in the surrounding area of Tipoldo, but without suggesting the use. The purpose of the interviews was to allow the informants to speak freely and without restriction, to gather a list of plants truly used in the territory. The conversations were mostly carried out using local dialect and were recorded to avoid information leaks. We interviewed a total of 20 people ranging in age from 66 and 92 years, with 9 men and 11 women. The regulations by the International Society of Ethnobiology (available at https://www.ethnobiology.net, accessed on 1 December 2021) were followed during the whole study and for data compilation. All the information obtained through the interviews were stored in an excel file, where we reported the following: Latin name, botanical family, life form, vernacular name, part used, ethnobotanical category, claimed uses, native or exotic status. In this paper, two quantitative ethnobotanical indexes were applied to analyze the collected data: Frequency Index and Relative Importance. In particular, the Frequency Index [ 59] is a quantitative measure of the percentage of times a particular botanical species is mentioned by informants. This index was calculated using the following formula:

where FC is the number of informants who mentioned using the species, and N denotes the total number of informants. Relative Importance (RI) index [ 60] was calculated by using the formula:

where RFC(max) and RNU(max) represent respectively the relative number of quotations compared to the max value among all the plants recorded, and the relative numbers of usage (NU) compared to the max value listed, were computed using the formulas:

The family, status, life form, and the scientific name according to the Flora of Italy [ 61,62,63,64] were assigned to each taxon. The nomenclature follows the checklists of Bartolucci et al. [ 65] and Galasso et al. [ 66] and their subsequent updates [ 37]. The different traditional local uses have been classified into 9 ethnobotanical categories: food, medicine, veterinary, handcraft, domestic, agropastoral, hunting, fishing, religious and recreational, following the classification proposed by Caneva [ 59]. Specimens were kept in the Herbarium of the University of Messina (MS, acronym according to Thiers [ 67]).

The investigations accomplished in the territory of Tipoldo allowed us to compile a list of 126 species belonging to 51 families (Table 1).

Among them, the most quoted families were Asteraceae (19 species) and Fabaceae (15 species), followed by Poaceae (9 species), Lamiaceae (6 species), Rosaceae (6 species), and Apiaceae, Asparagaceae, Brassicaceae, Salicaceae (each with 4 species). According to the Raunkiaer system [ 61,62,63,64] hemicryptophytes were the prevalent life form (38 taxa, i.e., 30% of the whole flora), closely followed by phanerophytes (37; 29%), therophytes (25; 20%) and geophytes (12; 9%), while the percentage of chamaephytes and nano‐phanerophytes (7; 6%) was very low (Figure 3).

As concerns the ethnobotanical uses of the plants (Figure 4), the most common are the medicinal (30%) and agropastoral uses (19%), followed by alimentary use (16%).

Furthermore, among the preparation methods recorded in the ethnobotanical categories, leaves (39%), stem (21%), and whole plant (18%) are the parts most commonly used by local residents (Figure 5).

The plants reported as health care by people interviewed are 54 species belonging to 28 families. Among the most quoted plants there is Clinopodium nepeta subsp. nepeta, a hemicryptophyte rich in essential oils [ 68,69], it is well known as an antiseptic in folk medicine, especially against insect bites, for example bees and hornets [ 70,71]. These medicinal properties are confirmed by many studies that highlighted its chemical composition [ 72,73]. Another one is Dittrichia viscosa subsp. viscosa which is used as a hemostatic for minor skin wounds [ 32,74], as what has been found in some places in Morocco [ 75], while in other regions of Italy, this species is used as an insect repellent [ 76,77]. The similarity between Moroccan and Sicilian medicinal usage is supported by other examples such as Foeniculum vulgare subsp. vulgare, Mentha pulegium and Allium sativum. Fruits of F. vulgare are used to cure stomach pain and gastrointestinal problems, leaves of M. pulegium are applied to treat the cold and A. sativum is quoted for its cardiovascular proprieties (e.g., to cure hypertension) [ 78,79]. Among those uses, from phytochemical viewpoint, were studied the fruits of F. vulgare, which have analgesic [ 80] and carminative [ 81] properties, therefore its utilization in folk medicine appears also well supported.

One more use, known also in modern medicine, regards Asplenium ceterach subsp. ceterach (Figure 6).

The decoction of this small fern treats kidney stone [ 82], and several other authors confirm this common use [ 32,83,84,85,86]. Other species of medicinal interest worth to be cited are: the fresh leaves of Achillea ligustica, which are used as antimicrobial and hemostatic [ 87]; the leaves of Ruta chalepensis, which are rubbed on the stomach of the sick (in Tipoldo this practice was mainly applied to children) to cure gastrointestinal worms [ 88]; Verbascum macrurum whose leaves were immersed in boiling water, giving off vapors used to treat hemorrhoids; Cynodon dactylon whose decoction has a diuretic effect [ 89]. An unexpected report was the use of wheat to treat the Herpes zoster virus (in Italian named “fuoco di Sant’Antonio”). Triticum spp. in Tipoldo was used up to 20 years ago to treat this virus, for this purpose the fruits were overheated through direct contact with an incandescent surface (usually the blade of a hoe) causing the release of a dark oil, which was applied while still hot on the skin. For these species (Triticum spp., Achillea ligustica, Asplenium ceterach, Ruta chalepensis and Verbascum macrurum) a clear correspondence was found between the uses reported to us by the informants in Tipoldo and the therapeutic virtues described in ancient medicinal systems, i.e., in the pharmacopoeia "i Discorsi" by Matthioli [ 90].

In the agropastoral field, the interviewees reported 34 species belonging to 15 families and the most representative are Fabaceae (9 species) and Poaceae (7 species). The plants reported are mainly used as animal fodder and rope plant in agriculture. In particular, the species utilized to feed the livestock are: Avena barbata, Bituminaria bituminosa, Dactylis glomerata subsp. hispanica, Daucus carota, Hyparrhenia hirta, Lathyrus clymenum, Lotus rectus, Medicago arabica, Sulla coronaria, Urtica dioica, and Vicia sativa. As concerns the rope plant, Ampelodesmos mauritanicus is very useful in farming because the leaves, after drying up, are an excellent and durable fiber to tie the support poles in the garden [ 91]. This application method of rope plants is still used by several locals in Tipoldo (Figure 7A,B). However, it was unusual to see the same traditional use with the stems of Spartium junceum (Figure 7C), which is used to hold the crop bales carried by mules, since its utilization in Sicily for agricultural purposes was known, but only to tie the chopped wood [ 43].

About the edible plants, the interviewees reported 28 species belonging to 16 families the most representative of which is Asteraceae (9 species), followed by Apiaceae, and Brassicaceae both with 3 species. A recent research has identified 292 native wild food plants [ 92], which means that plants play an important role in folk cuisine and represent an important local heritage. Our investigations show the typical plants used for the traditional wild plant cuisine in the Messina province. The species gathered in this area of Sicily are mainly eaten in a dish named “minestra sabbaggia” (Figure 8A-C) and it seems to be exclusive of this territory since it does not appear reported by the surroundings territories in Sicily [ 93].

Among the wild plants typically used in the preparation of this traditional Messina dish, such as Borago officinalis, Crepis vesicaria subsp. vesicaria, Sonchus oleraceus, Hypochaeris radicata, Brassica fruticulosa, in the territory of Tipoldo are also added: Hypochaeris achyrophorus, Lactuca viminea, and Mycelis muralis. Another food plant well-known is Portulaca oleracea, in fact, it appears to have been used as a food plant since ancient times [ 94,95] and its fresh use in salad can be also found in Greek cuisine [ 96]. Furthermore, we found an unusual use of Galactites tomentosus, which does not seem to be reported in Sicilian literature. In fact, there have been evidence that young stems can be eaten raw after skinning them (Figure 8D).

The plants reported by the interviewees for handcraft uses are 25 species belonging to 16 families, while for domestic uses they reported 15 species belonging to 10 families. In the handcraft field, the uses of Morus nigra wood for the construction of the “barìla” (flask for carrying wine and water) and the collars of sheep are worth mentioning. With the young branches of Castanea sativa and the longitudinally dissected culms of Arundo donax, the "còfani" (round baskets with the weaving made of wooden strips) were made, while the stems of Scirpoides holoschoenus were used to craft the ricotta cheese containers (Figure 9).

Of particular interest is the deep knowledge of Tipoldo’s artisans in making musical instruments. An interviewee explained, in detail, how the different parts of the “ciaramedda” (bagpipe) are made using Erica arborea wood (Figure 10), which, however, is not the only species used for this purpose. In fact, wood from Prunus dulcis, Prunus armeniaca, Ziziphus jujuba, Pyrus spinosa can also be used to make the bagpipe. Moreover, the wood of Erica arborea can be also used to build the “friscalettu”, a wind instrument like a flute (Figure 11).

As part of the investigations carried out in Tipoldo, we visited the property of an interviewee where there was a “palmento” (a machine to crush grapes) dating back to 1740, whose beam was made out of oak wood (Quercus virgiliana) and the screw of sorb wood (Sorbus domestica, seeFigure 12).

Other interesting domestically used plants were found, in particular, the leaves of Morus nigra, in addition to previous uses, were also utilized for feeding the silkworm. In other works, interviewers reported that the leaves of Morus alba are better than the latter, especially if the silkworm is in the first phase of growth. This shows the importance of the plant when the art of silk production was a source of income for the household [ 97,98]. Finally, another traditional use regarded the species Isatis tinctoria from which you can get the indigo, a blue dye, one of the oldest natural dyestuffs known to humans [ 99]. However, in literature this plant is also well-known for its medicinal uses throughout Eastern and Western cultures [ 100].

As stated above, some traditional uses in the study area result in new or unknown to the adjacent territories (e.g., Galactites tomentosus and Mycelis muralis). It is revealed by comparing the Tipoldo’s investigation with three Sicilian regional parks that our data set (126 species, of which 54 for medicinal uses) shows a good richness. In fact, scholars surveyed in the Nebrodi Regional Park 90 medicinal plants [ 42], in the Etna Regional Park 71 medicinal plants [ 33] and in the Madonie Regional Park 174 species (of which 100 for medicinal uses) [ 101], while in the Monti Sicani territory 144 medicinal plants [ 102] were investigated. Instead, the species most known in Sicily and confirmed by our research are the following: Borrago offinicinalis, Clinopodium nepeta, Asplenium ceterach, Dittrichia viscosa and Reichardia picroides [ 43]. The discovery of medicinal use of Triticum spp. in Tipoldo is an unusual component of this investigation and doesn’t seem to be reported in other studies done in Sicily, even if recent studies show beneficial properties regarding ancient wheats (e.g., against insulin resistance) [ 103,104].

This paper reveals that traditional knowledge about wild plants is still present and well spread in the Tipoldo village, but the socio-economic changes that followed the Second World War have largely reduced people's ethnobotanical cultural heritage. This represents the first contribution to the Peloritani territory. In fact, although the area where the investigations were carried out is small, we obtained a big number of data compared to other studies made in other Sicilian territories and also many correlations with traditional plant uses in some areas of Morocco [ 33,42,101,102105,106,107]. On the other hand, it is possible to hypothesize that this knowledge has been preserved due to the geographical isolation of Tipoldo from the city of Messina, and to the identity of its inhabitants, who are mainly farmers and shepherds. These traditional uses of wild plants in this community display a great cultural value. Some of them are like the methods reported in the pharmacopoeias of the 16^th century [ 90]. The use of wild plants has gradually declined over the centuries, but today there is a renewed interest, especially for food plants, which are viewed as healthier option than crop plants. The medicinal plants are undergoing a gradual rediscovery by the new generation too. The flora of a territory not only represents a natural heritage, but the knowledge and traditions associated with it have a very strong cultural value, representing a legacy for future generations. The protection of the ethnobotanical heritage is fundamental and can become a starting point for further investigations in several research fields such as the pharmacology, anthropology, botany, and humanities. Finally, this study, through the collected data intends to provide a historical documentation of the usage of plants in the Peloritani area, which is currently understudied.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.T. and A.C.; methodology, G.T., A.C., R.M.P.; investigation, G.T. and A.C.; data curation, G.T., A.C., V.R.; writing—original draft preparation, G.T. and A.C.; writing—review and editing, G.T., A.C., V.R., G.d.G; supervision, G.T., A.C., R.M.P., F.Z.R, G.d.G. “All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.”

Funding: “This research received no external funding.”

Data Availability Statement: All data presented in the manuscript are available in the form of tables and figures in the manuscript.

Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank all the inhabitants of Tipoldo. A special thanks goes to Carmelo Ferrara in charge of the library “Pietro Gori” who was fundamental to our investigations.

Conflicts of Interest: “The authors declare no conflict of interest.”

Human and animal rights: This research involved human participants who gave a verbal informed consent prior to the interview.