Articles

<b>Background</b><b>:</b><b> </b>Resting-state functional MRI (rsfMRI) provides insights into large-scale brain network organization associated with cognitive control, emotion regulation, and attentional processes. The ventral attention network (VAN) is a key salience-driven network that supports attentional re-orienting to behaviorally relevant stimuli. However, little is known about how VAN resting state functional connectivity varies by demographic, socioeconomic, psychosocial, and behavioral factors during early adolescence. <b>Objective</b><b>:</b><b> </b>To examine associations between VAN rsfMRI connectivity and multiple demographic, socioeconomic, psychosocial, and behavioral characteristics. <b>Methods</b><b>:</b><b> </b>Data came from the baseline and early follow-up waves of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. The analytic sample included youth with high-quality baseline rsfMRI data and complete socioeconomic and psychosocial measures. The primary outcome was mean resting-state functional connectivity within the VAN across subcortical and cortical regions of interest (ROIs). Bivariate correlations were computed between VAN connectivity and demographic (age, sex, puberty, race/ethnicity), socioeconomic (income, parental education, marital status, neighborhood income), psychosocial (trauma, discrimination, financial difficulty), trait (impulsivity), and behavioral variables (body mass index, depression, suicide, prodromal symptoms, and substance use). Unadjusted bivariate correlations and adjusted logistic regressions were used for data analysis. <b>Results</b><b>:</b><b> </b>VAN connectivity showed small but significant correlations with multiple contextual factors. Higher household income, parental education, and neighborhood affluence were associated with greater connectivity, whereas Black race and Hispanic ethnicity were related to lower connectivity. Youth reporting higher discrimination and financial difficulty exhibited weaker VAN connectivity. Greater VAN connectivity was negatively associated with impulsive reward-driven trait (drive), prodromal symptoms, BMI, and marijuana and alcohol use. Associations between VAN connectivity and suicide, depression, marijuana use, and alcohol use remained significant in age and sex adjusted models. <b>C</b><b>onclusions</b><b>:</b><b> </b>VAN connectivity reflects subtle neural correlates of socioeconomic and psychosocial context in early adolescence. Our results underscore the importance of integrating structural and contextual factors in interpreting brain-behavior associations across diverse populations. These findings are suggestive of stable socioeconomic and psychosocial correlates of network efficiency.

<b>Background:</b> Adolescence is a critical developmental stage for the emergence of major depressive disorder (MDD). Structural and diffusion neuroimaging studies have highlighted the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) as a key region implicated in emotion regulation, stress reactivity, and mood processing. However, few studies have examined whether microstructural characteristics of the ACC, reflected by mean diffusivity (MD) within gray matter–white matter (GM–WM) contrast regions, are associated with depression in early adolescence. <b>Objective:</b> To examine whether mean diffusivity (MD) within the GM–WM contrast of the left caudal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is associated with a past diagnosis of MDD among adolescents in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, after accounting for demographic, socioeconomic, and adversity-related factors. <b>Methods:</b> Data were drawn from adolescents with diffusion MRI–derived mean diffusivity measures and diagnostics. The independent variable was mean diffusivity (MD) of the GM–WM contrast in the left caudal ACC. The primary outcome was past MDD diagnosis based on structured psychiatric assessments. Covariates included age, sex, socioeconomic status (SES), and exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Logistic regression models tested the association between ACC MD and past MDD. A secondary model evaluated the relationship between ACC MD and past suicide attempt. <b>Results:</b> Mean diffusivity of the left caudal ACC was associated with the odds of past MDD, independent of age, sex, SES, and adversity exposure. In contrast, ACC mean diffusivity was not associated with a history of suicide attempt. <b>Conclusions:</b> Increased mean diffusivity in the caudal ACC may indicate microstructural alterations associated with depressive vulnerability in adolescence. ACC tissue integrity may serve as a sensitive neural correlate of early-onset depression.

Background:</b> Electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) use among adolescents is a growing public health concern, particularly in low-income and Black communities. However, little is known about how social determinants of health shape e-cigarette perceptions in this population. <b>Aims:</b> This study examined social determinants associated with perceptions of e-cigarette safety among Baltimore high school students. <b>Methods:</b> A cross-sectional survey (CEASE Youth: School Survey) was conducted with 604 Baltimore high school students aged 14–20. Participants completed a questionnaire assessing perceptions of e-cigarette safety, as well as parental education, race/ethnicity, parental employment, household composition, and community tobacco use. <b>Results:</b> Higher parental education was associated with lower perceived e-cigarette safety among students. Students in higher grades also reported lower perceived e-cigarette safety. In contrast, male students—particularly those in upper grades—were more likely to perceive e-cigarettes as safe. Race/ethnicity, household composition, parental employment, and community tobacco exposure were not associated with perceived e-cigarette safety. <b>Conclusion:</b> Higher parental education, female gender, and being in higher grades were associated with perceiving e-cigarettes as unsafe. These findings highlight the need for targeted interventions to address vaping perceptions among youth in urban settings.

<b>Background:</b> Sexual and gender minority (SGM) youth are at elevated risk for adverse mental health and substance use outcomes. Stressors such as family conflict, discrimination, and trauma have been suggested as possible mediators of these disparities. <b>Aims:</b> This study examined whether family conflict, discrimination, and trauma mediate the associations between SGM identity and adverse outcomes, including suicide attempt, major depressive disorder (MDD), nicotine use, and marijuana use. <b>Methods:</b> Participants were children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. SGM identity was reported at baseline, while outcomes included past MDD and suicide attempts as well as future nicotine and marijuana use. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test both direct and indirect pathways linking SGM identity to mental health and behavioral outcomes. <b>Results:</b> No significant mediation was found through family conflict, discrimination, or trauma. Instead, effects of SGM identity were primarily direct: SGM youth had higher odds of past suicide attempts and MDD, as well as future marijuana use, but not future nicotine use. Stressor variables, however, were independently associated with outcomes. Discrimination predicted all outcomes; trauma was positively associated with suicide, nicotine, and marijuana use but not MDD; and family conflict predicted all outcomes except MDD. <b>Conclusion:</b> Family conflict, discrimination, and trauma did not mediate SGM disparities in mental health and substance use, but each emerged as an independent predictor of risk. These findings highlight the complexity of mechanisms underlying SGM-related disparities and suggest the need for future research to explore additional pathways and contextual influences.

<b>Background:</b> Adolescent girls living in disaster-prone coastal regions of Bangladesh face heightened nutritional vulnerability due to limited food access, poor dietary diversity, and environmental stressors. Despite growing concerns about adolescent malnutrition, few studies have examined the combined influence of food security, dietary diversity, and age on nutritional outcomes in these settings. <b>Objectives:</b> This study aimed to assess the association between dietary diversity, food security, and age with the nutritional status of adolescent girls in coastal Bangladesh. <b>Methods:</b> A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 345 adolescent girls aged 10–19 in Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar. Data on dietary intake were collected using a 24-hour dietary recall and a food frequency questionnaire. Household food security was assessed using a validated scale. Nutritional status was determined using BMI-for-age classifications. Bivariate and multivariate analyses explored associations between dietary diversity, food security, age, and nutritional status. <b>Results:</b> Among participants, 10.14% were underweight, and 29.85% were either overweight or obese. While 17.39% demonstrated high dietary diversity (≥7 food groups), the majority had moderate diversity (5 or 6 food groups) (59.42%). Food-insecure households were significantly more likely to have overweight or obese adolescents (p < 0.05). Although dietary diversity was associated with BMI in bivariate analysis, it was not a significant predictor in the multivariate model. Age showed a significant relationship with both dietary diversity and nutritional status. <b>Conclusion:</b> The findings emphasize the importance of addressing household food security and age-related nutritional vulnerabilities in coastal areas. Interventions should prioritize age-sensitive, culturally appropriate strategies to improve dietary quality and prevent the double burden of malnutrition among adolescent girls.

<b>Background: </b>The sensory-motor network is essential for integrating sensory input with motor function and higher-order cognition. Resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) within this network undergoes significant developmental changes, and disruptions in these connections have been linked to behavioral and psychiatric outcomes. However, the relationship between sensory-motor connectivity, early-life adversity, and later health behaviors remains understudied. <b>Objective: </b>This study examines the associations between rsFC within the sensory-motor network (mouth and hand regions) and key social, psychological, and behavioral factors, including baseline and past socioeconomic status (SES), trauma exposure, family conflict, impulsivity, major depressive disorder (MDD), and future substance use. <b>Methods: </b>Data were drawn from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, a national sample of U.S. children. Resting-state fMRI data were used to assess functional connectivity within the sensory-motor network. Bivariate analyses examined associations between rsFC in the sensory-motor mouth and hand regions and baseline SES, past SES, childhood trauma exposure, family conflict, impulsivity, and MDD. Longitudinal analyses assessed whether baseline rsFC predicted future substance use. <b>Results: </b>Greater rsFC between the sensory-motor mouth and hand regions was significantly associated with lower SES, higher trauma exposure, and greater family conflict. Increased connectivity was also correlated with older age and more advanced puberty status. Higher rsFC between the sensory-motor mouth and hand regions was linked to greater impulsivity, lower cognitive function, an increased likelihood of MDD, and future marijuana use. <b>Conclusion: </b>These findings suggest that sensory-motor connectivity is sensitive to socioeconomic and psychosocial stressors, with potential long-term implications for mental health and substance use risk. The results highlight the importance of early-life environmental factors in shaping neurodevelopmental trajectories and emphasize the need for targeted interventions to mitigate the effects of adversity on brain function and behavior. Future research should further explore the role of sensory-motor network alterations in behavioral health outcomes as a function of environmental stressors.

<b>Background: </b>Nicotine pouches, gummies, and candies have emerged as popular alternatives to traditional tobacco products among U.S. adolescents. While parental educational attainment is generally associated with youth substance use, marginalization-related diminished returns (MDRs) suggest that this effect may be weaker in marginalized populations, including non-Latino White communities. In particular, place-based marginalization—such as neighborhood economic disadvantage and school-level poverty—may attenuate the benefits of parental education. This study examines MDRs in the relationship between parental educational attainment and nicotine pouch/gummy/candy use among non-Latino White 12th graders in the 2024 Monitoring the Future (MTF) study. <b>Methods: </b>This study analyzed nationally representative data from the 2024 MTF study, focusing on non-Latino White 12th graders who reported parental education levels and adolescents’ use of nicotine pouch/gummy/candy. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to estimate the effects of parental education on adolescents’ use of nicotine pouches, gummies, and candies, while adjusting for demographic covariates. Place-based marginalization was operationalized using rural vs urban /suburban residence. Interaction terms tested whether the effect of parental education varied based on place of residence. <b>Results: </b>Higher parental educational attainment was associated with lower use of nicotine pouches, gummies, and candies. However, this effect was significantly weaker in rural areas. <b>Conclusion: </b>Public health interventions should account for place-based disparities rather than assuming a uniform effect of SES factors. This study highlights the need for policy responses that address structural inequities beyond individual family SES.

<b>Background</b><b>:</b><b> </b>The Motivational Theory of Life-Span Development suggests that individual aspirations are shaped by both internal and external resources. Parental education is a key determinant of educational aspirations, yet its effects may vary by geographic location, demonstrating spatial patterns of Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs). <b>Objectives</b><b>:</b><b> </b>This study examines the association between parental education and aspirations for graduate or professional education among non-Latino White adolescents, with a specific focus on urban-suburban versus rural differences. <b>Methods</b><b>:</b><b> </b>Using data from the 12th-grade cohort of the Monitoring the Future (MTF) 2024 survey, we conducted multivariate analyses to assess the relationship between parental education and aspirations for graduate or professional education. We further examined whether this association was moderated by geographic location (urban-suburban vs. rural) to identify place-based MDRs. <b>Results</b><b>:</b><b> </b>Higher parental education was associated with greater aspirations for advanced education; however, this effect was weaker in rural areas compared to urban and suburban settings. These findings highlight that even among non-Latino White adolescents, rural residence diminishes the benefits of socioeconomic resources, providing evidence of place-based MDRs. <b>Conclusion</b><b>:</b><b> </b>Rural residents face a dual disadvantage—both lower socioeconomic status and weaker returns on those resources—necessitating targeted interventions beyond resource allocation. To address disparities in educational aspirations in rural areas, policymakers should focus on improving equitable access to educational opportunities and ensuring that these resources translate into comparable outcomes across different social and geographic contexts.

<b>Background: </b>The hippocampus plays a critical role in memory and decision-making processes, with its resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) linked to various behavioral outcomes. This study investigates whether baseline brain-wide rsFC of the hippocampus mediates the relationship between impulsivity and subsequent substance use, specifically tobacco and marijuana use, in adolescents. <b>Methods: </b>Data were drawn from the baseline wave of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Resting-state fMRI data were used to evaluate the functional connectivity of the hippocampus with key brain networks, including the cingulo-parietal network, visual network, sensory-motor network, and default mode network (DMN). Impulsivity was assessed using validated self-report measures, and substance use (tobacco and marijuana) was evaluated at follow-up. Mediation models were conducted to examine the extent to which hippocampal rsFC explains the association between impulsivity and substance use. <b>Results: </b>Baseline hippocampal rsFC with the cingulo-parietal network, visual network, sensory-motor network, and DMN showed marginal associations with future tobacco and marijuana use. Additionally, hippocampal rsFC was significantly associated with impulsivity, which, in turn, predicted higher substance use at follow-up. These findings suggest that hippocampal rsFC partially mediates the relationship between impulsivity and substance use behaviors. <b>Conclusions: </b>Hippocampal functional connectivity with brain networks may influence the pathway from impulsivity to future substance use in adolescence. These findings emphasize the importance of hippocampal connectivity in understanding the neural mechanisms underlying risk behaviors and may inform the development of targeted interventions to reduce substance use in this vulnerable population.

<b>Background</b><b> </b>Adolescent substance use is often influenced by socioeconomic and geographical factors. While higher parental education is typically associated with lower substance use, these protective effects may be weaker for marginalized groups facing structural disadvantages that limit the utility and returns of their economic and social resources. Rural areas, characterized by fewer employment opportunities and limited recreational activities, may contribute to marginalization-related diminished returns (MDRs) of parental education on adolescent substance use, including inhalant use. <b>Objectives</b><b> </b>This study applies the MDRs framework to examine whether the protective effect of higher parental education on current inhalant use (past 30 days) among 12th-grade American adolescents varies by geographic location. Specifically, we assess whether youth from highly educated families in rural areas are at a disproportionate risk of inhalant use compared to their urban and suburban peers. <b>Methods</b><b> </b>Using data from the 2024 Monitoring the Future (MTF) study, a nationally representative survey of 12th-grade adolescents in the U.S., we tested main effects and statistical interactions between parental education and residence (rural vs. urban/suburban) in predicting the odds of inhalant use over the past 30 days. Logistic regression models, both with and without interaction terms, were applied to evaluate whether the protective effects of parental education varied by residence location, controlling for relevant demographic and socioeconomic factors. <b>Results</b><b> </b>Findings indicate a significant interaction between parental education and rural residence. While higher parental education was associated with lower odds of inhalant use in urban and suburban areas, this protective effect was substantially weaker in rural settings. Adolescents from highly educated families in rural areas exhibited a higher-than-expected risk of inhalant use, suggesting that geographic marginalization attenuates the benefits of parental socioeconomic resources. <b>Conclusions</b><b> </b>These results highlight the role of place-based marginalization in shaping adolescent substance use disparities, demonstrating that MDRs extend beyond race and ethnicity to location-based disadvantages. Rural youths from highly educated families may face unique structural and social challenges that counteract the protective effects of parental education. Public health efforts should consider place-based interventions that address the economic, recreational, and social limitations of rural environments to reduce substance use risk among high-SES adolescents residing in rural areas.

</b>Background: </b>The Cingulo-Opercular Network (CON) is a crucial executive control network involved in regulating actions and facilitating higher-order cognitive processes. Resting-state functional connectivity between the CON and the Default Mode Network (DMN) plays a vital role in cognitive regulation, enabling the transition between internally focused and externally directed tasks. This study investigates whether resting-state functional connectivity between the CON and DMN mediates the effects of social determinants, such as educational opportunities and family structure, on cognitive outcomes in youth. <b>Aims: </b>This study aims to explore how CON-DMN connectivity influences the relationship between social gradients and cognition in youth. Specifically, it examines whether resting-state functional connectivity between these networks mediates the effects of educational opportunities and family structure on cognitive outcomes and seeks to uncover the neural mechanisms underlying these social gradients. <b>Methods: </b>Data were derived from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, a large longitudinal dataset of over 11,000 children aged 9–10 years. Cognitive outcomes were assessed using standardized NIH toolbox measures: Total Composite, Fluid Reasoning, Picture Vocabulary, Pattern Recognition, and Card Sorting. Social determinants were operationalized using indicators such as parental education, family composition, and neighborhood educational opportunities (COI). Resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) between the CON and DMN was measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to test whether CON-DMN rsFC mediated the relationship between social determinants and cognitive outcomes, adjusting for potential confounders such as age, sex, and race/ethnicity. <b>Results: </b>Stable family structure and greater educational opportunities were significantly associated with improved cognitive performance. These relationships were mediated by reduced functional connectivity between the CON and DMN. <b>Conclusion: </b>Reduced functional connectivity between the CON and DMN serves as a neural mechanism linking social gradients, such as educational opportunities and family structure, to better cognitive outcomes in youth.

<b>Background:</b> As a central component of the brain's reward system, nucleus accumbens (NAcc) plays a crucial role in reward salience and substance use behaviors. Changes in the NAcc are also relevant to higher rates of substance use of youth and adults from low-income backgrounds. Although resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) of the NAcc provides valuable insights into the neural mechanisms underlying reward processing and the propensity for self-reported reward salience and substance use, research exploring the association between NAcc rsFC and brain networks beyond the default mode network (DMN) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) is limited. <b>Objective:</b> To investigate the role of the resting-state functional connectivity of the NAcc with the cingulo-opercular network, sensorimotor mouth network, and sensorimotor hand network in the association between socioeconomic status, self-reported reward salience, and future substance use. <b>Methods:</b> Data were obtained from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. NAcc rsFC with the cingulo-opercular network, sensorimotor mouth network, and sensorimotor hand network was assessed at baseline. Socioeconomic status was measured using family income. Self-reported reward salience was assessed using validated psychometric scales. Substance use outcomes were tracked longitudinally over the study period. Structural Equation Modeling was employed to examine the covariances between family income, NAcc rsFC, reward salience, and subsequent substance use. <b>Results:</b> Higher baseline family income was positively associated with baseline NAcc rsFC (B = 0.092, p < 0.001) and negatively associated with baseline reward salience (B = -0.040, p = 0.036) and future substance use (B = -0.081, p < 0.001). Baseline NAcc rsFC was strongly and positively associated with reward salience (B = 0.734, p < 0.001) and future substance use up to age 13 (B = 0.124, p < 0.001). Additionally, baseline reward salience was positively associated with future substance use (Covariance = 0.176, p < 0.001). <b>Conclusion:</b> The findings suggest that NAcc rsFC with brain networks beyond the DMN or PFC may contribute to the links between low parental socioeconomic status, reward salience, and substance use risk. Expanding the understanding of NAcc rsFC provides new insights into the neural mechanisms underlying these associations. These results have important implications for developing targeted interventions aimed at preventing substance use, particularly among low-income youth with heightened reward salience. Further research is needed to explore causal pathways and moderating factors influencing these relationships.

<b>Objective: </b>To examine racial/ethnic differences in the associations of family socioeconomic status (SES), neighborhood SES, and inhibitory control with body mass index (BMI) in 9-10-year-old children using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. <b>Methods: </b>This cross-sectional study included a diverse sample of children aged 9-10 years, representing non-Latino White, Black, Latino, Asian, and Other racial/ethnic groups. BMI was the primary outcome. Key predictors were family SES, neighborhood SES, and inhibitory control. Multivariable regression models were stratified by race/ethnicity to identify group-specific associations. <b>Results: </b>Race/ethnic groups differed in<b> </b>psychosocial correlates of childhood BMI at age 9 and 10. Among non-Latino White children, higher family income (B = -0.086, p < 0.001), higher parental education (B = -0.069, p < 0.001), and living in a married household (B = -0.079, p < 0.001) were associated with lower BMI. Additionally, the presence of healthy food options in the zip code (B = -0.030, p = 0.032) was linked to lower BMI, while lack of planning (B = 0.032, p = 0.030) was associated with higher BMI. For non-Latino Black children, positive urgency (B = -0.068, p = 0.022) was negatively associated with BMI, while other factors such as family SES and neighborhood SES did not show significant associations. For Latino children, higher family income (B = -0.093, p = 0.001) and parental education (B = -0.099, p < 0.001) were associated with lower BMI. In this group, male gender (B = 0.043, p = 0.033) was associated with higher BMI. Among Asian children, higher family income (B = -0.199, p = 0.006) and parental education (B = -0.144, p = 0.037) were significantly associated with lower BMI. For children in the "Other" racial/ethnic category, higher family income (B = -0.101, p = 0.023), living in a married household (B = -0.076, p = 0.026), and higher median income in the zip code (B = -0.083, p = 0.013) were associated with lower BMI. In this group, male children had lower BMI compared to females (B = -0.089, p = 0.001). <b>Conclusion: </b>The findings highlight substantial racial/ethnic differences in the psychosocial and socioeconomic correlates of BMI in children. There is a need for tailored interventions that target social determinants of childhood high BMI. One size does not fit all.

<b>Background: </b>Emotional problems have been associated with substance use, yet longitudinal research examining this relationship during childhood and adolescence in large, diverse, community-based samples remains limited.<b> </b><b>Aims: </b>This study investigates the prospective associations between three emotional problems—hopelessness, depression, and suicide attempts—before ages 9–10 and the subsequent initiation of tobacco and marijuana use before ages 14–15, using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study.<b> </b><b>Methods: </b>Data from the ABCD study were analyzed. Baseline emotional problems, including hopelessness, depression, and suicide attempts, were assessed at ages 9–10 through structured parent interviews. Substance use outcomes (tobacco and marijuana initiation) were tracked from baseline to follow-up at ages 14–15 using structured self-report measures. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to assess the predictive roles of these early-life emotional problems, controlling for potential confounders such as demographic factors and family and neighborhood socioeconomic status.<b> </b><b>Results: </b>Baseline hopelessness, depression, and suicide attempts at ages 9–10 were significant predictors of tobacco and marijuana use initiation at ages 14–15. These associations remained robust after adjusting for confounders, indicating the independent effects of early emotional problems on adolescent substance use initiation.<b> </b><b>Conclusions: </b>Emotional problems in early childhood, including hopelessness, depression, and suicidal behavior, are critical predictors of substance use initiation during adolescence. These findings underscore the importance of early identification and targeted mental health interventions to reduce the risk of substance use among vulnerable youth.

<b>Background: </b>Parental employment is a significant social determinant of children's developmental outcomes, shaping their cognitive and behavioral trajectories. However, the effects of parental employment may not be equally protective across racial groups. The Minority Diminished Returns (MDRs) framework suggests that socioeconomic status (SES) factors, such as employment, yield fewer protective benefits for Black families compared to White families. <b>Objective: </b>This study investigates the diminished returns of parental employment on trauma and associated neurocognitive and behavioral outcomes in children, with a focus on racial variation in these effects. <b>Methods: </b>Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, a large and diverse sample of children was analyzed. We applied MDRs theory and social determinants of health frameworks to examine the association between parental employment, trauma, and children's cognitive and behavioral outcomes. The analysis controlled for family SES, neighborhood factors, and racial group differences. <b>Results: </b>Preliminary findings suggest that while parental employment is generally protective against trauma, the strength of this association is diminished for Black children. Black families with employed parents experience higher levels of trauma and stress compared to their White counterparts, which may contribute to racial disparities in cognitive and behavioral outcomes. <b>Conclusion: </b>Parental employment may not equally buffer against trauma-related risks for Black children, reflecting the broader pattern of diminished returns for racially disadvantaged groups. These findings highlight the need for policies addressing the unequal benefits of SES across racial groups.

<b>Background: </b>Socioeconomic status (SES) is a well-established predictor of cognitive function in children, but the neurobiological pathways through which SES influences cognitive outcomes remain underexplored. This study examines the role of the cingulate gyrus (region of the brain that is involved in emotion regulation, decision-making, error detection, and cognitive control) in mediating the relationship between SES and cognitive performance, with a focus on whether these effects vary by sex. <b>Objective: </b>To investigate the role of the cingulate gyrus in mediating the association between social gradients (family SES) and cognitive function in children and assess potential sex differences in these pathways. <b>Methods:</b> Data were drawn from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Cognitive function was assessed using a composite measure of executive function and general cognitive ability. Structural MRI data were used to measure the volume of the cingulate gyrus. Path analysis was conducted to examine the mediating role of the cingulate gyrus in the association between SES and cognitive function. Interaction terms were included to test for sex differences. <b>Results:</b> Higher SES was significantly associated with a larger cingulate gyrus volume and better cognitive function. The volume of the left cingulate gyrus partially mediated the relationship between family and neighborhood SES and cognitive function, explaining a portion of the social gradient in cognitive outcomes. No significant sex differences were found in these mediating effects. <b>Conclusions:</b> The cingulate gyrus partially mediates the link between SES and cognitive function in children. These findings suggest that social disparities in cognitive function may operate, in part, through neurobiological changes such as those in the cingulate gyrus, without significant variation by sex.

<b>Background:</b><b> </b>School characteristics — including poverty levels, teacher experience, graduation rates, and college enrollment — are essential determinants of students’ academic outcomes and long-term success. Families often use their socioeconomic resources, such as parental education and household income, to secure access to high-quality schools with favorable attributes. However, Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) theory suggests that Black families may not experience the same benefits of high family SES due to structural barriers. This study examines the association between family SES and school characteristics, focusing on racial disparities in access to high-quality educational environments. <b>Objective:</b><b> </b>To investigate the relationship between family SES (parental education and household income) and multiple school characteristics (poverty, teacher experience, graduation rates, and college enrollment), and to assess racial differences in these associations. <b>Methods:</b><b> </b>Data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, a national sample of US adolescents, was analyzed. We used multivariate regression models to examine associations between family SES and school characteristics and to test for interactions by race, specifically comparing Black and White adolescents. <b>Results:</b><b> </b>Higher family SES was associated with positive school characteristics overall, including lower school poverty, greater teacher experience, and increased graduation and college enrollment rates. However, these positive effects of high family SES on school characteristics were significantly weaker for Black adolescents than for White adolescents. Black adolescents from high-income families were more likely than White adolescents from similar backgrounds to attend schools with higher poverty rates, less experienced teachers, and reduced graduation and college enrollment rates. <b>Conclusion:</b><b> </b>Our findings highlight persistent racial inequities in access to educational opportunities, even among families with comparable socioeconomic resources. The diminished returns of family SES for Black adolescents underscore the role of structural barriers in limiting access to high-quality schools. These findings emphasize the need for policy interventions to address systemic inequalities that hinder Black families from fully leveraging their SES to access favorable educational environments.

<b>Background:</b><b> </b>Low socioeconomic status (SES) has been linked to higher rates of tobacco and marijuana use initiation; however, the contributions of environmental and neurocognitive factors remain underexplored. This study investigates a potential pathway connecting low SES, fine particulate matter (PM2.5) exposure, brain functional connectivity, and inhibitory control to increased tobacco and marijuana use initiation among adolescents. <b>Objectives:</b><b> </b>To examine the mediating roles of PM2.5 exposure, resting-state functional connectivity between the right pallidum and the ventral attention network (P-VAN rsFC), and inhibitory control in the relationship between low SES and tobacco and marijuana use initiation. <b>Methods:</b><b> </b>Data were drawn from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study to assess associations between baseline SES, baseline PM2.5 exposure (based on zip code), baseline P-VAN rsFC, baseline inhibitory control, and subsequent tobacco and marijuana use initiation. Mediation models were used to determine whether PM2.5 exposure and changes in P-VAN rsFC act as pathways linking low SES to diminished inhibitory control and subsequent substance use initiation. <b>Results:</b><b> </b>Low SES was associated with higher PM2.5 exposure, which, in turn, was linked to alterations in P-VAN rsFC. These alterations were correlated with lower inhibitory control, which significantly predicted tobacco and marijuana use initiation over time. Inhibitory control partially mediated the relationship between low SES and substance use initiation, indicating a complex pathway influenced by environmental and neurocognitive factors. <b>Conclusions:</b><b> </b>This study identifies a potential mechanism linking low SES to tobacco and marijuana use initiation through environmental and neurobiological pathways. Understanding how PM2.5 exposure and neurofunctional connectivity impact inhibitory control can provide valuable insights for developing targeted interventions to reduce substance use among adolescents in low SES environments.

<b>Background: </b>Most neuroscience research has predominantly focused on White, middle-class populations, leading to gaps in understanding how socioeconomic status (SES) influences brain development and health behaviors in racially diverse groups. Tobacco use, a major public health concern, is influenced by both family and neighborhood SES, with early initiation during adolescence predicting long-term health outcomes. The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study provides a unique opportunity to examine racial disparities in the pathways from SES to brain development and behavior, especially through the lens of Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns (MDRs), where the effects of SES are attenuated for minority groups. <b>Objective: </b>This study investigates racial variation in the associations between SES, cerebral cortical volume, and tobacco use initiation, comparing Black and White youth over 4-6 years of follow-up. <b>Methods: </b>Data from the ABCD study were analyzed to assess pathways from family income to adolescents’ cortical volume via the needs-to-income ratio, and from cortical volume to tobacco use initiation. Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate these pathways, stratified by race, with a focus on comparing Black and White participants. Covariates included family and neighborhood SES, demographic factors, and baseline behavioral measures. <b>Results: </b>We found that the positive association between income (via the needs-to-income ratio) and total cortical volume was significantly weaker for Black youth compared to White youth. Additionally, the link between larger total cortical volume and reduced risk of tobacco initiation was also weaker in Black adolescents. These findings were consistent over 4-6 years of follow-up, suggesting that Black youth experience diminished returns from higher SES in terms of brain development and behavioral outcomes. <b>Conclusions: </b>Our findings highlight significant racial disparities in the pathways from SES to brain development and tobacco use initiation, supporting the Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns (MDRs) framework. While higher SES is associated with larger cortical volumes and lower tobacco use risk in White youth, these associations are attenuated in Black adolescents.

<b>Objective: </b>This study investigates the pathways linking socioeconomic status (SES), trauma, early puberty, and tobacco use, with a focus on how these relationships differ by sex. Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, we explore how SES and race contribute to trauma exposure, which in turn may influence early puberty and tobacco use. The study also examines potential mediating effects of trauma and early puberty on the association between SES and tobacco use, while comparing these pathways for males and females.<b> </b><b>Methods: </b>Data were drawn from the ABCD study, and structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to test direct and indirect pathways between SES, trauma, early puberty, and tobacco use. The sample was stratified by sex to assess differences in these relationships for males and females. Key predictors included SES, race, and age, while outcomes were trauma, early puberty, and tobacco use. The model assessed mediating effects of trauma and early puberty on tobacco use.<b> </b><b>Results: </b>Trauma was a significant predictor of early puberty for females (B = 0.032, SE = 0.015, p = 0.039) but not males. Early puberty was significantly linked to tobacco use for females (B = 0.048, SE = 0.015, p = 0.001) but not for males. Additionally, trauma had an effect on tobacco use among females (B = 0.048, SE = 0.014, p < 0.001) but not males.<b> </b>Lower SES was significantly associated with higher trauma exposure for both males (B = -0.109, SE = 0.014, p < 0.001) and females (B = -0.110, SE = 0.015, p < 0.001). <b>Conclusions: </b>The findings suggest that trauma and early puberty play more significant roles in the pathways from SES to tobacco use for females than for males. While trauma and early puberty are crucial mediators for females, these factors are less predictive for males. These results highlight the importance of sex-specific interventions targeting trauma and early puberty as pathways to early tobacco use.