Articles

Smallholder farmers play a pivotal role in global food security; however, they remain exceptionally vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to their reliance on natural resources and limited adaptive capacities. This narrative review synthesizes a wide range of global sources to explore the intersection of smallholder agriculture and climate adaptation strategies. The review examines adaptation practices, agroecological methods, and the adoption of climate-resilient crop varieties. It reveals that the implementation of these strategies is frequently hindered by systemic barriers such as financial constraints, limited technological access, and institutional inefficiencies. Recognizing that previous studies have addressed isolated aspects of adaptation or relied on secondary data, this review highlights research gaps and offers a comprehensive synthesis of relevant literature. This review uses a narrative synthesis model suitable for integrating evidence from agronomy, economics, and social science to capture the complex challenges faced by smallholder farmers. The review emphasizes the importance of policy frameworks and participatory approaches that empower smallholder communities. This review synthesizes current evidence to inform potential directions for targeted interventions and future field-based studies, while recognizing the limitations of relying on secondary data. These recommendations aim to facilitate integrated policy reforms and drive research initiatives, ultimately strengthening the resilience and adaptability of smallholder agriculture in the face of ongoing climate change.

A diagnosis of the current state of the crops is made regarding the control of weeds, use of pesticides, fungicides; with an assessment of the state of the plant covers in the crop, and its control by different types of herbicides, and we detected a high loss of biological diversity; and some of these compounds are mentioned due to their high toxicity. Similarly, the use of pesticides and fungicides is discussed due to their repercussions on health. In order to avoid the unhealthiness caused by the applications of these products, phytosanitary and educational control strategies are proposed; promoting the inspection of fruit and vegetable markets, and modifying the contents in higher professional and university education. To this end, we propose an active teaching methodology, through which the student acquires skills and responsibility for the use of chemical agents in agriculture, which serves to prevent the entry of these contaminants into the food chain. Of the different polluting chemical agents, in the case of herbicides we highlight Oxyfluorfen and Glyphosate with high toxicity and whose consumption is very high. In the case of pesticides and fungicides, among others are Organochlorine compounds, which have been detected in blood, and Carbon Tetrachloride and Chloroform, considered potent hepatotoxic and neurotoxic. The basic objective of this study is the awareness and acquisition of knowledge by future teachers about polluting agents, which will subsequently have an impact on society.

There is an ongoing debate regarding how to feed Sub-Saharan Africa's fast rising population in the long run, as well as the implications for food security. To maintain food security, various strategies have been recommended, including a focus on the significance of diversifying and improving people's diets. Proposals have been tabled elsewhere with a primary focus on enhancing agricultural inputs and technology adoption in order to increase agricultural production and productivity, hence strengthening food security. The current opinion piece attempts to contribute to this debate by examining smallholder agriculture and its role to African food security. This discussion proposes a future paradigm shift toward a gendered climate-smart smallholder agriculture and food production and security conceptual framework based on the promotion and development of smallholder agriculture and food production and security. Therefore, it's predicated that the micro-livestock-centered approach can remodel smallholder agrarian households and communities toward a gender-inclusive global climate change adaptive smallholder agriculture to strengthen production, supply, and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa. For Africa, today’s predicament is to ensure food security for the anticipated rapid population expansion, while on the other hand handling an overall net adverse effect of worldwide global climate change, and increased socio-economic ills associated with gender inequality in smallholder agriculture and ensuring long-term agriculture sustainable development. The failure to address gender inequality in smallholder agriculture and food production and pontificate of global climate change effect has thrown Sub-Saharan Africa into a state of perpetual food scarcity and insecurity because of low agricultural productivity and food supply, and by force of circumstances exposing the agricultural communities and its people to extreme poverty and nutrition and food insecurity. Therefore, it's predicated that the micro-livestock-centered approach can remodel smallholder agrarian households and communities toward a gender-inclusive global climate change adaptive smallholder agriculture to strengthen production, supply, and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa. For this purpose, this discussion proposes a future paradigm shift towards a gendered climate-smart smallholder agriculture and food production and security conceptual framework hinged on the promotion and development of the micro-livestock and/or unconventional animal species sub-sector to strengthen food security on the continent. Overall, the discussion emphasizes the importance of taking immediate action to alleviate the negative effects of climate change and address gender inequality through promotion of micro livestock to assist in the development of long-term adaptation measures to maintain smallholder agricultural productivity.

One of the current issues facing humanity is ensuring sustained global food security in the face of devastating effects of climate change; this challenge is particularly pressing on the African continent. Here, I present an opinion piece identifying local animal genetic resources as "African leverage point" that provide the highest chances to cushion rural fork to climate change, enhance environmental sustainability and food security in Africa. When it comes to boosting food production, coping with climate change, or bolstering the delivery of a wide range of ecosystem services, I believe that African animal genetic resources are essential alternatives for the sustainable growth of the livestock industry and its contribution to food security. Africa needs to address the support and development of indigenous animal genetic resources in order to meet the basic food needs of more than 1 billion people, address numerous environmental issues with continental implications, and focus on more effective and resilient food systems with the greatest impact on food security. The indigenous animal resources diversity and support actions to this unique group could provide a boost in protein that is lacking to constitute healthy diets in Africa. The priorities of nonprofit organizations, foundations, governments, citizens' groups, and companies can be influenced by this leverage point in the African food system. Due to continuous food insecurity, which appears to be becoming worse with climate change and makes it even harder to accomplish the SDGs on the continent, Africa has paid a hefty price for being misled about the worth of its own animal genetic resources. To the contrary, it is highly improbable that a strategy to improve food security and rural livelihoods that undermines the utilization of indigenous animal genetic resources will be viable in long-term. If Africa makes an effort, is committed, and fully commits resources to putting indigenous animal genetic resources at the forefront of combating food insecurity and accelerating the achievement of SDGs, it can achieve more under the adverse prevailing climate change induce environmental conditions. Our personal opinion is that we would not have had the ongoing food problems, even in the face of climate change, if Africa had over the years implemented the necessary mechanisms to develop and promote local animal genetic resources. What lies ahead in terms of climate change effect on food security in Africa is anyone's guess – but whatever it is, promoting continental adapted indigenous animal genetic resources portfolio is ready to handle it. Development and promotion of African animal genetic resources should be part of a continental strategy to transform smallholder animal production by 2050, in line with the goals of achieving the SGDs, to improve rural household food security, and bringing rural economy prosperity, resilience, sustainability, and all other desired animal related food outcomes for rural healthy diets. African animal genetic resources are the most important but underutilized resource to address the issue of ongoing food insecurity. The responsible use of local animal genetic resources through climate smart animal husbandry practices also contributes to food security, rural development and increased employment opportunities. African genetic improvement programs involving indigenous animal genetic resources must be considered as regards to local agriculture and livestock development aspirations, appropriateness to local reality and livelihood security, as well as environmental friendliness. Animal agriculture will fill in the enormous gaps in the continent's food supply if this animal group receives adequate attention and is used integrated properly in crop and livestock systems which characterize smallholder farming sector in Africa. Because they have evolved over time to accommodate the various climatic conditions and environmental pressures on the continent, Africa's native animal genetic resources are particularly resilient. Indirectly, the impact of climate change offers a chance to use native animal genetics from Africa. The use of local animal genetic diversity has the potential to substantially improve Africa's food security landscape hence should be given special consideration for sociocultural, environmental, and economic aspects, and with regard for smallholder farmer-specific factors of interest. African animal genetic resources have contributed significantly to the food and nutrition security aspects of the millions of people in their communities of origin and custody in Africa. The purpose of the perception piece is to educate the reader about the fundamental mechanisms that control the use of continental animal genetic resources and how the outlook for these mechanisms can be manipulated in the future for the benefit of improving food security in Africa. The discussion provides in-depth insight into the pertinent literature in understanding the significance of local animal genetic resources in terms of their contribution to food security in Africa.

Water is essential for food security and animal agricultural productivity, but it is becoming more scarce due to climate change. The interaction between climate change and livestock water resources has received little attention from researchers, despite the significance of small-scale animal husbandry for the rural poor in Africa and the size of the changes that are anticipated to have an impact on smallholder livestock systems. Threats to livestock water are undoubtedly one of the most significant environmental issues that have impacted food security on the continent, given their links to small-scale animal husbandry and the detrimental impacts on productivity. In order to balance the negative effects of climate change scenarios for sustainable animal productivity and contribute to food security through small-scale animal agriculture, the most climate-smart and resilient agricultural water practices and technologies must be used. Changes in rainfall and a decline in the biomass available for grazing and rangelands as a result of water stress brought on by the climate would have the most severe effects. This is due to the rain-fed nature of small-scale livestock farming. The local animal genetic resources are essential for animal productivity and food security in Africa, particularly in areas where livestock water is becoming scarce owing to climate change. Research and development goals on the effects of climate change on livestock water, animal productivity, and food security may need to be reviewed if demands of vulnerable small-scale animal producers are to be successfully addressed in the future decades. It is best to use an interdisciplinary approach to comprehend the relationships between small-scale animal husbandry, food security, and climate change. By navigating the complexities of climate adaptation, small-scale livestock farmers can manage livestock water scarcity by taking adaptation measures that are in line with evolving climate impacts and associated means of implementation based on pertinent and useful knowledge that takes into account a blend of traditional and modern water science. In this paper, an effort is made to close some significant information gaps and shed light on how water-induced stress impacts small-scale animal production, which has an effect on food security.

Poor irrigation water quality due to oil spillage on surface water can result in food insecurity, health and economic challenges. This paper investigated the effect of total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPHC) and lead (Pb) on irrigation water quality in the oil spill prone area of the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Water samples were taken from five different sections labelled A, B, C, D, and E along the Choba River, in Rivers State, Nigeria. Sections B, C, D and E were direct industrial effluent discharge points while section A was without direct industrial effluent discharge. Standard methods were employed in the water sampling and analysis. Suitability of Choba river water for irrigation was assessed by comprehensive pollution index (CPI) that incorporated salinity, sodicity, and permeability hazard potentials as well as the specific toxicity hazard potentials of TPHC and Pb. Results showed that all primary water parameters except pH were within the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) guidelines. The pH was low, ranging between 4.48 and 5.6. TPHC values for four out of the five samples were greater than the 10mg/l guideline as recommended by the Directorate of Petroleum Resources for surface water. TPHC for the four samples ranged between 14.52 and 174.32mg/l. The parameters with the most impact on CPI include EC, PI and TPHC with TPHC having the most impact. Water samples from sections A, B and E with CPI values 0.14, 0.37, and 0.8 respectively were classified in the clean, sub clean and slightly polluted categories respectively, while water samples from sections C and D with CPI values greater than 1 range from moderately to heavily polluted and not suitable for agricultural irrigation. Only water sample A was found suitable for irrigation.

<b>:</b>Basil (<i>Ocimumbasilicum</i><i> L.</i>) is an herbaceous annual aromatic herb that belongs to the Lamiaceae family. This study aimed to analyze the essential oil content and physicochemical properties of basil varieties stored under different drying methods and dried on different drying days. The fresh leaf of basil varieties was collected from the Wondo Genet Agriculture research center experimental field and subjected to open sun and shade drying methods and four drying days (0,5, 10, and 15). The sample was subjected to oven and hydrodistillation methods on each four particular drying days. The obtained essential oils were analyzed for physical properties (specific gravity and refractive index) and chemical composition using GC-MSD. As shown in the result of all-cause drying methods and drying days significantly affect the essential oil content and physicochemical properties of Basil Variety. In the case of Variety, Basil 02 has a high essential oil content than Basil 05 in the chemical composition, and different chemical compositions exist in both. In the case of drying methods, the sample dried under the shade is higher than in the open sun in essential oil content and physicochemical properties. In the case of different drying days, as the drying days increase, the essential oil content is significantly affected. The essential oil content and physicochemical properties of essential oil decrease as drying days increase for both basil varieties. Drying affects the chemical composition of the two variables, which means, as in the cause of open sun drying, affects the chemical composition more than shade drying as the drying days increase, and the chemical composition decrease. Therefore, this study provides evidence that drying herbs on different drying days and under drying conditions affect the essential oil content and physicochemical properties of essential oil.

The outbreaks and quick spread of severe-acute-respiratory-syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), causing the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), have badly affected the whole world due to continuous emergence-and-transmission of the latest-new viral-genomes forming new-variants revealing patterns of the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak-and-global-pandemic with badly affecting advanced-medical-science-technology-communication-agriculture-agronomy-plant-breeding-horticulture, health-environment-socio-economy, and different-issues. India's emphasis on okra, the ‘Nature's-Gift to Human-Disease-Free-Healthy-Life’ and the most ‘Economically-Important-Number-One-Consumption Vegetable-Crops’ is destroyed by various-diseases causing pathogens like the root-knot (RK)-diseases caused by the nematodes, <i>Meloidogyne incognita</i> (Kofoid &#x26; White) Chitwood, and easily checked by many chemical-pesticides. But it causes different carcinogenic effects on the environment and our life. So it is an urgent need to develop potential biomedicines. The pretreatments with ultra-high-diluted-biomedicines (UHDBMs) Gall 200C and Nematode 200C, prepared from okra-root-galls (ORG) and nematode-females (NF) respectively, applied by foliar spray@ 20 ml/plant, are highly effective against the root-knot-disease of okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench Cv. Ankur-40, with the increasing growth of plants and fruits-production. The UHDBMs-Gall 200C is more effective than the Nematode 200C. Both the pretreatments-UHDBMs are responsible for induce-systemic-acquired-defense-response of the pretreated-plants through the expression of pathogenesis-related (PR)-proteins-genes (22-14 numbers), which are more or less similar-molecular-range (295kD-11kD) of many coronavirus, which will be responsible for preventing-RK and COVID-19 like virus-diseases by inducing-defense-resistance or increasing innate-immunity respectively, and advanced in medical-science, technology, communication, agriculture, agronomy, plant breeding, horticulture, health, environment, socio-economy, and different application-issues with pollution-free globe, developing new-preventive typical-biomedical vaccines or treatments methods or drug development and research against the ‘21<SUP>st</SUP>-Century Global Pandemic COVID-19 like Any Viral Diseases’ which lead to optimal contributions to the field of policymaking drug and vaccine development emphasizing new or important aspects of the study, and synthetic production of UHDBMs will be more practical implications, and social implications in the future research. And the farmers and the world would be benefitted most; by collecting and uprooting gall-roots after harvesting for cost-effective bio-controlling plant-diseases, and profit from shelling-and-buying of whole plants, fruits, and gall-roots also, and helps for the benefit of global health by developing the most cost-effective, personalized, non-toxic, easily-preparable, easily-maintainable, easily-available and suppliable, vaccines or treatments methods from their own product.