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Universal Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities
Article | Open Access | 10.31586/ujssh.2023.734

An Assessment of Coping Strategies on Work-family Conflict and Job Performance in Ghana

Samuel Otoo1,*, Shirley Dankwa2, Samuel Annan-Nunoo3 and Kate Gyasi4
1
Department of Hospitality Management, Cape Coast Technical University, Cape Coast, Ghana
2
Centre for African Studies, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana
3
Department of Social Sciences, Abetifi Presbyterian College of Education, Abetifi, Ghana
4
Department of Geography, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana
Received November 22, 2022
Revised March 29, 2023
Accepted May 16, 2023
Published July 28, 2023

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine coping strategies for managing the effects of work-family conflict on the management staff of hotels in the Accra metropolis of Ghana. The study adopted a Convergent parallel mixed methods research technique. The population of the study is all-star-rated management staff of star-rated hotels in the Accra metropolis. multi-stage sampling. The estimation of the sample size for the hotel managers was based on Krejcie and Morgan’s table for the determination of the sample size for a given population. The population of 100 managers were stratified and randomly sampled out of the 182 managers. The main instruments for data collection were questionnaires and an interview. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.0 was used to determine simple percentages and frequencies of responses. Pearson product-moment Correlation and structural equation model were used to determine the consequences of work-family conflict as well as coping strategies adopted by managers. Amos PLS was used to determine the moderating effect of coping strategies on work-family conflict and job performance. Hotel managers in the Accra metropolis combine the strategies of structural role redefinition, personal role redefinition, cognitive restructuring and reactive role redefinition to curb work-family conflict. The study demonstrated a positive relationship between coping strategies and job performance. Coping strategies had a moderating effect on the relationship between work-family conflict and the job performance of hotel managers. Thus, to improve the job performance of hotel managers, there should be the application of coping interventions to help them perform on the job. The study also determined that work-family conflict had a significant positive relationship with job performance. Similarly, the study established that coping strategies significantly moderate the relationship between work-family conflict and job performance among hotel managers in the Accra metropolis. Although coping strategies were employed by hotel managers in the Accra metropolis, it is recommended that training sessions on the use of coping strategies and stress management techniques should be considered by management to address psychological and emotional work environment stressors since they have been proven to reduce stress and WFC. It is also recommended that there should be an inter-hotel collaboration to offer smaller hotels which do not have the resources some leverage the impact of work-family conflict. This platform can be provided by the Ghana hotels association to impact knowledge of coping strategies in smaller hotels. The government must be encouraged to liaise with the Ghana hotels association to enforce the mandatory eight-hour work per day to avoid overworking of hotel managers.

1. Introduction

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the conflict between work and family life domains [1]. The interface of work and family generates a level of incompatibility and eventually conflict. This conflict is known as work-family conflict in organizational behaviour literature Work-family conflict is considered to be an important issue in today’s business world, especially in the hospitality industry where employees spend much time at work [2, 3]. Work-family conflict is the consequence of inconsistent demands between the roles at work and in the family. Work-family conflict occurs when the pressures from the family and work domains are mutually incompatible, and as a result, participation in the work role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the family role [4].

The Ghanaian cultural setting places responsibilities of household chores on the woman, but in an era where more women are taking more professional responsibilities in the hospitality industry, this may contradict family responsibilities, Work-family conflict constraints or predictors could be job-related, family-related, and individual-related [5]. Job-related activities that constrain managers are the type of work, time committed to work, work overload and the flexibility of the job. Managers experience work-family conflict due to longer working hours. It has been found that the intensity of WFC occurs due to the time a person spends on the job. Long hours committed to work could have negative consequences for families and for the manager who struggles to balance the demands of work and family roles. Longer working hours result in job stress among managers, particularly female employees [6]. Work demands and overload is perhaps the most consistent predictor of work-family conflict. Work demands connected with work-family conflict and the hospitality industry includes compulsory or unexpected overtime, shift work, job pressure, excessive work, job hassle, and working fast or having many interruptions.

However, managers are also constrained by family-related activities such as the number of children, life cycle stage and child care management issues. A manager could therefore see him or herself as a valued employee, a loving spouse, or a good parent, hence each of these roles provides a different aspect of identity to an individual. Some managers recognize being valued employees of an organization as the most important aspect of their identity, while others may gain more pleasure from their role as family men or women and, therefore, value it more [5]. Conflict can, therefore, occur when an individual who values a particular role is forced by situational constraints to spend less time than he or she would like in that role and instead devote a lot more energy, time, and other resources to other roles and responsibilities [5]. When managers' total demands on time and energy are inadequate to perform the role comfortably, work overload occurs [7]. Managers who occupy work roles and perceive that their workload is more than they can handle would experience negative emotions, fatigue and tension. These feelings would then have positive effects on work-family conflict [7].

Furthermore, there is a lack of research specifically examining how work-family conflict (job-related and family related) diminishes hotel managers’ work performance in the Ghanaian context, specifically in the Accra Metropolis. The few studies done on work-family conflict and job performance has focused on the manufacturing and banking industry leaving a gap in demonstrating how the relationships between work-related, family-related factors and a hotel manager’s job performance can be moderated through available coping strategies (structural role definition, personal role definition, reactive role redefinition, and cognitive restructuring) [8, 9]. This study seeks to better understand these relationships. Manager’s work-family help-seeking behaviours are an important and under-studied element of how managers cope with work-family conflict and the relational context within which managers help-seeking behaviors occur can influence the effect of work-family conflict. However, few studies have explicitly explored the coping mechanisms of work-family conflict among managers in Ghana particularly in the Accra metropolis. A study on work-family conflict and coping mechanisms of hotel employees revealed that if a manager is not comfortable at home due to complex and different expected roles then it will negatively affect the overall performance at work and therefore low efficiency and productivity [10]. There is therefore the need to carry out a study on work-family conflict among the management staff of star-rated hotels in the Accra metropolis. The study was guided by these research questions and three hypotheses (1) What are the effects of work-family conflict among the management staff of star-rated hotels in the Accra Metropolis? (2) What are the coping strategies for managing the effects of work-family conflict among management staff of star-rated hotels? •H6 There is a relationship between coping strategies and job performance • H7 Coping strategies moderate the relationship between work-family conflict and job performance• H8 There is a relationship between work-family conflict and job performance.

1.1. Coping strategies

In a recent meta-analysis of the relationship between personality and coping, researchers found that extraversion and conscientiousness predicted more problem-solving and cognitive restructuring coping strategies [11]. In contrast, neuroticism predicted maladaptive coping strategies such as wishful thinking, withdrawal, and emotion-focused coping. Coping strategies are associated with job performance. Specifically, coping strategies such as seeking social support and active action were positively related to job performance [12]. These findings were consistent with previous studies showing the detrimental effects of work stressors and the beneficial effects of coping separately for the Chinese people [12, 13].

1.2. Work-Family Conflict and Job Performance

To analyse these issues, there are several studies striving to find out the valid influence and also give empirical support to work-family conflicts on job performance, although still in a limited number [14]. For example, research rejects the relationship between family-work conflict and job performance [15]. On the contrary, a study reported that employees’ performance was affected by work-life conflict and work overload in the hotel sector [8]. A similar study found a positive relationship between work overload and supervisor-rated performance [16]. Empirical research suggests that work-to-family conflict (WFC; i.e., when work responsibilities interfere with family life) is related to job attitudes and therefore may serve as a potential source of resource loss or gain that affects job performance [21].

1.3. Coping Strategies for Managing the Effect of Work-family Conflict

Coping strategies are defined as the cognitive and behavioural efforts an individual enacts in order to manage taxing demands the individual believes exceed his or her personal resources [17]. These cognitive and behavioural efforts involve attempts to master, reduce, or tolerate the internal and/or external demands that result from term the “stressful transaction” [18]. The “stressful transaction” is a process in which “the person and the environment are seen in an ongoing relationship of reciprocal action, each affecting and in turn being affected by the other” [19]. Coping strategies means mechanisms to invest in one own conscious effort, to solve personal and interpersonal problems, in order to try to master, minimize or tolerate stress and Work–family conflict is very common in contemporary jobs and may reflect a phenomenon that cannot be completely avoided. From a practical viewpoint, it is particularly important to gather insights into factors that may buffer detrimental consequences of work–family conflict. In order to reduce dissatisfaction and stress resulting from work-family conflict among employees, many factors are identified from the previous research. Workplace helped employees to coordinate between work-family roles through Organizational culture, Supervisor support, and Family-oriented benefits [20]. Values determined the meaning that work holds for individuals, so the critical component of employee experience at work was the degree to which their work organization helped or hindered individual value attainment. Work-family facilities are protective factors which eliminate the effect of work-family conflict on the mental health of adults and it is when work-family facilities are higher than work-family conflicts [21]. The use of family-friendly policies, the number of hours worked per week, and supervisor support were predictive of work-family conflict [22]. Researchers found out that help-seeking and direct-action coping (forms of problem-focused coping) used at home were associated with lower conflict levels, but avoidance and resignation coping (forms of emotion-focused coping) were associated with higher conflict levels of all types [23]. The study further indicated that a high level of problem-focused coping weakened the link between FIW and life strain [23]. However, another study, found that emotion-focused coping weakened the negative effect of FIW on job satisfaction [24]. The results from the few studies examining the effects of coping on WFC are inconsistent, partly, perhaps, owing to the comprehensive manner in which coping strategies have been conceptualized. Most research has adopted general coping strategy typologies (e.g., problem-focused vs. emotion-focused) instead of developing a specific taxonomy for the context of WFC [24].

The researcher suggests that developing a specific taxonomy might be more sensitive and therefore better for elucidating the relationship between multiple (and unique) forms of coping and WFC. A study on 130 female Hotel managers at Research Universities in the Klang Valley area including the University of Malaya, National University, and Putra University, Malaysia, ended those coping strategies were negatively related to WFC and work-family demands [25]. Hotel managers are associated with well-being, as it provides guidance on how to live life, offers comfort, and support in good and bad times, and give meaning and identity to individuals [26]. A study in a sample of hotel managers found that using problem-focused coping strategies moderated the relationship between job performance and work-family conflict and the relationship between personal-life stress (e.g., marriage, the birth of a child, and the death of a spouse) [27]. The authors concluded that individuals who face stressors by adopting problem-focused coping strategies exhibited less strain than those who did not adopt problem-focused coping strategies.

Other researchers found that time management behaviours (a form of problem-focused coping strategies) had both direct and indirect effects (through perceived control) on WIF, but only indirect effects on FIW (through perceived control) [28]. Personal coping strategies (which involved time management strategies and the reframing of demands) were only related to FIW [29]. Problem-focused coping is inversely related to strain-based family FIW, but only marginally related to strain-based WIF and not at all related to any form of time-based conflict [30]. It has been suggested that the degree of objective control the individual has over a particular domain influences the effectiveness of problem-focused coping, which could explain the direction of employees would be more likely to have more objective control of their family domain than their work domain [30].

Researchers examined the relationships between various styles of coping across work and home domains and perceived work-family conflict. The four styles of coping the authors examined were direct action, help-seeking, positive thinking, and avoidance/resignation. Direct action and help-seeking are problem-focused forms of coping while positive thinking and avoidance/resignation are emotion-focused forms of coping. Direct action occurs when an individual takes specific action in order to eliminate a stressor while help-seeking involves an individual’s “attempts to mobilize action and make changes in conjunction with others. Avoidance resignation occurs when an individual uses a “cognitive escape process and or a passive attempt to ignore stressors while positive thinking occurs when an individual “exercise great control to manage their cognitions in an optimistic fashion. In the work domain, the authors found that positive thinking (work), direct action (work), and help-seeking (work) were unrelated to both time- and strain-based work interfering with family while avoidance/resignation was positively related to both forms of work interfering with family. In the home domain, the authors found that direct action 26 (family) was negatively related to strain-based family interfering with work while help-seeking (family) was negatively related to time-based family interfering with work. Lastly, avoidance/ resignation (family) was positively related to both forms of family interfering with work and direct action (family) was positively related to time-based family interfering with work [31]. The authors were surprised that neither direct action nor help-seeking was related to work-family conflict within the work domain. A subsequent study found a positive relationship between having an advice-seeking coping style (which was very similar to a help-seeking coping style but involved the procurement of advice from others rather than direct aid) and family interfering with work and no relationship between having an advice-seeking coping style and work interfering with family [31].

1.4. Conceptual Framework

The model presented was drawn from previous theories and models on work-family conflict as well as previous related studies. Role theory suggests that the demands of multiple roles can lead to stressors (such as inter-role conflict), and in turn, to symptoms of strain or negative outcomes (such as reduced job satisfaction and job performance) [32]. The conservation of resources theory is an integrated stress model that is an alternative framework for understanding work-family relationships. According to this theory, individuals seek to acquire and maintain resources. Stress occurs when there is a loss of resources including time and energy [33]. Based on the conservation of resources theory, when there is a depletion of emotional energy, a deterioration in job satisfaction and performance standards is expected. Based on these theories, and previous research findings pertaining to the relationships between work-family conflict and the outcome variables, this conceptual framework proposes that the work-family conflict can be traced through two different paths namely, job-related and family-related factors. The outcome of work-family conflict such as high turnover intention reduced organizational commitment, low job satisfaction, low marital and family satisfaction and depression could be mitigated by employing coping mechanisms such as structural role definition, personal role definition, reactive role redefinition and cognitive restructuring to attain effective job performance. However, the work-family conflict has a direct effect on job performance. Coping strategies are used as moderating variables between work-family conflict and job performance. Work-family conflict was used as the independent variable and job performance as the dependent variable [32, 33].

Figure 1
Conceptual framework of the study (Source: Adapted, [5])

2. Materials and Methods

The study adopted a Convergent parallel mixed methods research technique. The population of the study is all-star-rated management staff of star-rated hotels in the Accra metropolis. multi-stage sampling. The estimation of the sample size for the hotel managers was based on Krejcie and Morgan’s table for the determination of sample size for a given population [34]. From Table 1 the population of all managers yields 182 managers. The 100 managers were stratified and randomly sampled out of the population of managers to administer the questionnaire. The sample was computed by using a formula and a table determination of sample size based on the confidence level needed from a given population [34].

A sample size of managers for the study S = X²NP (1-P) d² (N-1) +X²P (1-P)

Where

X² = the table value of chi-square for 1 degree of freedom at the desired confidence level (3.841)

N= Population size (356 managers)

P= Population proportion assumed to be 0.50

D = Degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion (0.05)

Sample size of managers for the study (S) = 3.841*356*0.50(1-0.50) 0.05² (356-1) +3.841*0.50 (1-0.50)

A sample size of managers for the study (S) = 182 managers

Table 1
Samples of Managers

The main instruments for data collection were questionnaires and an interview. The questionnaires for hotel managers are structured with some of the questions being close-ended where the respondents will select their responses from a list of pre-determined answers. The questionnaire was categorised into two sections Section A and B, covering issues on work-related factors and family-related factors respectively. Section A illicit for data on the perception of the effect of work-family conflict on management staff. Section B obtains data for coping strategies for managing work-family conflict. Semi-structured interview guides were used to elicit information from managers of the star-rated hotels. The interview guide included coping strategies used by managers to manage work-family conflict. Interview guides were adopted because of the creation of verbal behaviour and flexibility for managers to express their views on work-family conflict issues and also initiate a process of asking a follow-up question to the interviewee. On data analysis, Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.0 was used to determine simple percentages and frequencies of responses. Pearson product-moment Correlation and structural equation model were used to determine the consequences of work-family conflict as well as coping strategies adopted by managers. Amos PLS was used to determine the moderating effect of coping strategies on work-family conflict and job performance.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Coping Strategies for Managing Work-family Conflict among Hotel Managers

This section presents results and discussions on some strategies employed by managers to cope with work-family conflict. The strategies are categorised into structural role definition, Personal role definition, reactive role redefinition, and cognitive restructuring. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the relationship among the variables. Managers who experience work-family conflict will wish to prevent or reduce the effect of WFC using various strategies. Table 2 indicates the strategies that were often used by managers of hotels in the Accra Metropolis. These were grouped into four main categories namely, structural role redefinition (SRR) personal role redefinition (PRR), reactive role redefinition (RRR) and cognitive Restructuring (CR).

Hotel managers employ cognitive and behavioural efforts in order to manage or reduce taxing demand exceeding personal resources [17, 19]. Table 2 shows that managers agreed to structural role redefinition issues, personal role redefinition issues, reactive role redefinition issues and cognitive restructuring issues (average mean=3.27, average mean=3.60, average mean= 3.58, average mean=3.56 respectively) as means of managing work-family conflict. However, respondents agreed strongly that reactive role redefinition (average mean= 3.56) is employed to manage work-family conflict among the various coping strategies. Moreover, comparing the three categories of coping strategies, the result indicated that, reactive role redefinition (3.60) was highly employed by management staff, followed by cognitive restructuring

In relation to the personal role definition, all the statements agreed with the category mean 3.60 which is significant. Hotel managers sometimes reduced involvement in one or more roles, sometimes accepting they cannot get everything done and often deciding that certain roles can wait assumed the highest (mean 3.71,3.68,3.68) respectively, which means they strongly agreed. Respondents however least agreed with the statement that they sometimes decide not to do certain things (mean = 3.42), and sometimes change standards that are set for themselves (mean 3.50). This result confirms the assertion of a previous study that personal coping strategies were related to WFC [35].

With regards to reactive role redefinition, collectively managers agreed to the statement with a category mean of 3.58 which is significant. The statements which assumed the highest mean of 3.79 was managers often doubling their own efforts to make things work out. This means Managers highly agreed to the fact that they try to double their effort to make things work out in the hotel. Managers sometimes planned carefully to get everything done in the hotel was the statement which attained the lowest mean value of 3.46. This, therefore, suggests that it was the least agreed statement among the reactive role redefinition statement. This result is consistent with a similar study that careful planning and effective management of schedules are positively related to WFC [31].

Likewise, the statement under Cognitive restructuring was also agreed by hotel managers with an average mean of 3.56 which is significant. Managers often realizing that many of the demands they feel now are only temporary assumed the largest mean value of 3.75 which therefore suggest that the statement was highly agreed to by managers of the hotels. The statement with the lowest mean value of 3. 44 was managers sometimes decide that the roles causing stress are not important. This suggests that sometimes deciding that the roles causing stress are not important is the least agreed upon by hotel managers.

The statements measured under Structural Role Redefinition also performed relatively better with an average mean of 3.27 which is significant. Hotel managers often employing someone to assume some of their duties assumed the highest mean (category mean=3.50) which therefore means that it was highly agreed to by managers. Hotel Managers often asking others to have different expectations about them obtained the lowest mean value of 3.18 which suggest that it was the least agreed statement by the managers. The result affirms the assertion of an earlier study that work-family conflict was found to have a significant relationship with coping mechanisms [36].

Table 2
Coping Strategies Used by Hotel Managers

The quantitative study revealed that coping strategies play an important role in managing work-family conflict, hence hotel managers employ various coping strategies in various categories such as the structural role definition, personal role definition, reactive role redefinition, and cognitive restructuring to attain job performance. This was evident in an interview with the hotel managers which revealed that a manager takes deliberate measures to manage work-family conflict.

“Personally I hire other people to help with family chores and it goes with a cost. Activities in the family are delegated to these hired people to perform to ease tension in the home”. (a manager, 2-star hotel) “At the workplace, I empower other staff to take responsibilities, I also delegate work schedules to make work activities more flexible at the workplace”. (A manager, one-star hotel). “Personally, I motivate and inspire myself that in spite of all the conflicts; I have to achieve my aims both at the family and workplace”. (A manager, 3-star hotel)

3.2. Moderating Effect of Coping Strategies on Work-Family Conflict and Job Performance.

This sub-section presents results and discussions on the moderating effect of coping strategies on work-family conflict and job performance. This study employed structural equation modelling (SEM) using partial least squares (PLS) to analyze the proposed hypotheses. PLS has been widely used in theory testing and confirmation; it is also an appropriate approach for verifying relationships between variables and thus is useful in suggesting propositions for later testing [37, 38]. PLS is a well-designed statistical analytic software for evaluating complicated predictive models, including the analysis of both the measurement and structural models [39]. PLS relies on a smaller sample size for validating a model than other SEM techniques [40]. Since the collected sample in this study was relatively small, PLS was used to test the research model and the SMART PLS 3.0 software to analyze data.

Table 3
Measurement items, Reliability and validity of the model
Figure 2
Result of the structural model.
Table 4
Discriminant validity of the model
3.2.1. Measurement Model

Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted using SMART PLS 3.0. The analysis targeted work-family conflict (work-related factors, family-related factors), coping strategies and job performance. The results then showed that factor loading values for all items on each construct were greater than 0.7 which met the criterion of factor loading of 0.5 or higher [41]. The evaluation of the measurement model consisted of two main aspects, including tests of convergent validity and discriminant validity [37, 39]. Convergent validity was established by examining Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE). In general, the Cronbach’s alpha and the CR for each construct had to be greater than 0.7 and the AVE for each construct had to exceed 0.5 [42]. In the analysis targeting the constructs, Cronbach’s alpha for all constructs exceeded 0.8, ranging from 0.823 to 0.956. The CR for all constructs was also greater than 0.9, ranging from 0.918 to 0.961. Additionally, the AVE for each construct was greater than 0.5, ranging from 0.741 to 0.878. The Cronbach’s alpha, CR, and AVE exceeded the threshold. Table 4 represents the relevant values of the convergent validity of the measurement model. Therefore, convergent validity was established. The discriminant validity of the measurement model was evaluated by two criteria: the square root of the AVE and cross-loading [43]. The square root of the AVE for each construct must exceed the correlations between the construct and all other constructs [43]. In addition, all the item loadings on their construct should be greater than their loadings on the other constructs. In the analyses for all the constructs, the square root of the AVE for each construct exceeded the correlations between that construct and the other constructs. Table 3 represents the square roots of the AVE for all latent constructs. The loadings of items of each construct were higher than the loadings of items of other constructs in all analyses; therefore, discriminant validity was established.

3.2.2. Structural Model (Hypothesis Testing)

Bootstrapping method was used to compute the t-statistics and to test the hypothesis. To test the moderating effects of coping strategies and job performance, the moderating effect option in the SMART PLS 3.0 software was used. To test for possible issues of multicollinearity, the variance inflation factor (VIF) was examined. The PLS regression analysis verified that there was a positive relationship between coping strategies and job performance, as well as work-family conflict (work-related, family related) and job performance relationship. The path coefficient of coping strategies and job performance turned out to be positive (β = 0.160, p < 0.0 14), and that of work-family conflict and job performance (β = 0.738, p < 0.000), moreover, for the moderating effect analysis, the two interaction terms (coping strategies × work-family conflict →job performance) were also statistically significant (β = 0.090, p < 0.050). These observations are presented in Table 5.

Table 5
The effects of work-family conflict on job performance and the moderating effect of coping strategies
Figure 3
Result for structural model
Figure 4
Interaction between WFC and Coping Strategies

COPST strengthens the positive relationship between WFC and JOB PERF.

The connection between work-family conflict and job performance among hotel managers in the Accra metropolis. Besides that, coping strategies were studied to find out their mediating effect on the relationship between work-family conflict and job performance among hotel managers. Partial Least Square (PLS) analysis findings demonstrated a positive relationship between coping strategies and job performance which is consistent with an earlier study coping strategies were associated with job performance specifically; coping strategies were positively related to job performance [12]. This finding was consistent with previous studies showing the detrimental effects of work stressors and the beneficial effects of coping separately for the Chinese people [12, 13]. From this finding, it is possible to claim that the work-life balance policies are in line with what is demanded by hotel managers. For instance, the hotel manager has to be permitted to adjust their work schedule in order to accommodate family needs such as attending to sick wife. They must have few options in setting arrival and departure times at work as long as they meet the minimum requirement of working eight hours per day. Similarly, the hotel manager needs flexible working hours to send their children to school. Hence there must be a considerable change in their working hours to help managers accommodate family needs. Hence, H1 was supported.

Additionally, it was determined that work-family conflict had a significant relationship with job performance. Based on this result, it can be assumed that the hotel managers managed to take control of their stress as well as adopted several alternative solutions to manage work-family conflict. Besides, hotel managers are believed to work more efficiently when they picked the most important task, arranged the time management for different tasks and managed to follow it. As a result, hotel managers have become competent and capable in the activities that are important to them. This scenario would lead towards increasing the level of job performance of hotel managers. The finding of this study is in line with that of which established that training hotel managers on coping strategies will help to improve their stress or conflict condition [44]. Similarly, a study that hotel manager’s achievement was found to be significantly predicted by their coping strategies [45]. Therefore, H3 was supported. The moderation analysis showed that coping strategies significantly moderated the relationship between work-family conflict and job performance. It is possible to assume that the hotel managers have successfully employed coping strategies in managing stress or conflicts. For instance, once managers have decided what should be done, they meet and explain their plan to their colleague managers as well as discuss the situation which caused their stress. The results of this study emphasize the relevance of coping strategies for work-family conflict and job performance. These results suggest that coping strategies is critical to the success of hotels. Thus, it offers opportunities for hotel managers to understand coping strategies which invariably would improve work-family conflict, thus leading to the job performance of hotels. However, coping strategies thoroughly moderates the relationship between work-family conflict and job performance, contextually, implementing these concepts in hotels requires careful planning and resource investments in order to avoid being counterproductive. The findings of this study affirm the findings of previous research which emphasized the relevance of Coping strategies support for work-family conflict and job performance [46]. The result of this study is supported by other researchers that Malaysian hotel managers are not exempted from seeking coping mechanisms to manage their stress and conflict [47, 48].

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

Hotel managers in the Accra metropolis combine the strategies of structural role redefinition, personal role redefinition, cognitive restructuring and reactive role redefinition to curb work-family conflict. They sometimes ask friends or relatives for help, often ask others to have different expectations about them, and sometimes asking partner to take more responsibilities. They also sometimes change standards that they set for themselves, sometimes try to keep roles separate (not taking work hours) and sometimes accept that they cannot get everything done. They sometimes plan carefully to get everything done, often scheduled role activities such that they do not conflict and often work harder to meet role demands. Furthermore, they sometimes decide the roles causing them stress are not important, often realize that some conflict is inevitable; sometimes realize that their problems are less serious than those of others. The study demonstrated a positive relationship between coping strategies and job performance. Coping strategies had a moderating effect on the relationship between work-family conflict and the job performance of hotel managers. Thus, to improve the job performance of hotel managers, there should be the application of coping interventions to help them perform on the job. The study also determined that work-family conflict had a significant positive relationship with job performance. Similarly, the study established that coping strategies significantly moderate the relationship between work-family conflict and job performance among hotel managers in the Accra metropolis. Although coping strategies were employed by hotel managers in the Accra metropolis, it is recommended that training sessions on the use of coping strategies and stress management techniques should be considered by management to address psychological and emotional work environment stressors since they have been proven to reduce stress and WFC. It is also recommended that there should be an inter-hotel collaboration to offer smaller hotels which do not have the resources some leverage the impact of work-family conflict. This platform can be provided by the Ghana hotels association to impact knowledge of coping strategies in smaller hotels. The government must be encouraged to liaise with the Ghana hotels association to enforce the mandatory eight-hour work per day to avoid overworking of hotel managers.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization SO, SD, SAN, and KG; methodology, SO, SD, SAN, and KG; validation, SO, SD, SAN and KG; formal analysis, SO and SD.; investigation, SO, SD, SAN and KG.; resources, SO, SD, SAN and KG; data curation, SO; writing—original draft preparation, SO; writing—review and editing, SD, and SD; visualization, SO, and SD; supervision, SO and SAN.; project administration, SO, SD, SAN, and KG; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: “This research received no external funding”

Data Availability Statement: Data is available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgements: We acknowledge the participants in this study.

Conflicts of Interest: “The authors declare no conflict of interest.” “No funders had any role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results”.

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  6. Akkas, M. A., Hossain, M. I., & Rhaman, S. (2015). Causes and consequences of work-family conflict (WFC) among the female employees in Bangladesh: an empirical study. Journal of business and economics, 6(12), 2063-2071.[CrossRef]
  7. Barnett, R. C., & Hyde, J. S. (2001). Women, men, work, and family: An expansionist theory. American psychologist, 56(10), 781.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Akram, B., Bibi, B., Ashfaq Ahmed, M., & Kausar, N. (2022). Work-family conflict and suicidal ideation among physicians of Pakistan: the moderating role of perceived life satisfaction. OMEGA-journal of Death and Dying, 85(2), 465-482.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Ernst Kossek, E., & Ozeki, C. (1998). Work–family conflict, policies, and the job–life satisfaction relationship: A review and directions for organizational behaviour–human resources research. Journal of applied psychology, 83(2), 139.[CrossRef]
  10. Gamor, E., Amissah, E. F., Amissah, A., & Nartey, E. (2018). Factors of work-family conflict in the hospitality industry in Ghana. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 17(4), 482-501.[CrossRef]
  11. Connor-Smith, J. K., & Flachsbart, C. (2007). Relations between personality and coping: a meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 93(6), 1080.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Lu, Y., Hu, X. M., Huang, X. L., Zhuang, X. D., Guo, P., Feng, L. F., ... & Hao, Y. T. (2017). The relationship between job satisfaction, work stress, work–family conflict, and turnover intention among physicians in Guangdong, China: a cross-sectional study. BMJ open, 7(5), e014894.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Drummond, S., O’Driscoll, M. P., Brough, P., Kalliath, T., Siu, O. L., Timms, C., ... & Lo, D. (2017). The relationship of social support with well-being outcomes via work–family conflict: Moderating effects of gender, dependants and nationality. Human Relations, 70(5), 544-565.[CrossRef]
  14. Netemeyer, R. G., Boles, J. S., & McMurrian, R. (1996). Development and validation of work–family conflict and family–work conflict scales. Journal of applied psychology, 81(4), 400.[CrossRef]
  15. Patel, S. P., & Cunningham, C. J. (2012). Religion, resources, and work-family balance. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 15(4), 389-401.[CrossRef]
  16. Spector, P. E., Cooper, C. L., Poelmans, S., Allen, T. D., O’driscoll, M., Sanchez, J. I., ... & Yu, S. (2017). A cross-national comparative study of work-family stressors, working hours, and well-being: China and Latin America versus the Anglo world. In International Human Resource Management (pp. 257-277). Routledge.[CrossRef]
  17. Lazarus, R. S. (2003). Author's response: The Lazarus Manifesto for positive psychology and psychology in general. Psychological Inquiry, 14(2), 173-189.[CrossRef]
  18. Bliese, P. D., Edwards, J. R., & Sonnentag, S. (2017). Stress and well-being at work: A century of empirical trends reflecting theoretical and societal influences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(3), 389.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Ames-Guerrero, R. J., Barreda-Parra, V. A., Huamani-Cahua, J. C., & Banaszak-Holl, J. (2021). Self-reported psychological problems and coping strategies: a web-based study in Peruvian population during COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), 1-17.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Nabong, T. K. M. (2012). An exploratory study of work-family conflicts and enrichment of front-line hotel employees in the Philippines (Master's thesis, University of Stavanger, Norway).
  21. Piotrowski, M. J., Piquini, P., & Da Silva, J. L. (2010). Density functional theory investigation of 3 d, 4 d, and 5 d 13-atom metal clusters. Physical Review B, 81(15), 155446.[CrossRef]
  22. Frye, N. K., & Breaugh, J. A. (2004). Family-friendly policies, supervisor support, work–family conflict, family–work conflict, and satisfaction: A test of a conceptual model. Journal of Business and Psychology, 19(2), 197-220.[CrossRef]
  23. Rotondo, D. M., Carlson, D. S., & Kincaid, J. F. (2003). Coping with multiple dimensions of work‐family conflict. Personnel review.[CrossRef]
  24. Amazue, L. O., & Onyishi, I. E. (2016). Stress coping strategies perceived organizational support and marital status as predictors of work–life balance among Nigerian bank employees. Social Indicators Research, 128, 147-159.[CrossRef]
  25. Achour, M., Khalil, S. B. A., Ahmad, B. B., Nor, M. R. M., & Yusoff, M. Y. Z. B. M. (2017). Management and supervisory support as a moderator of work–family demands and women’s well-being: A case study of Muslim female academicians in Malaysia. Humanomics.[CrossRef]
  26. Mustapa, N. S., Noor, K. M., & Mutalib, M. A. (2018). Why can't we have both? A discussion on work-life balance and women’s career advancement in Malaysia. Journal of Asian Finance Economics and Business.[CrossRef]
  27. Bhagat, R. S., Segovis, J., & Nelson, T. (2016). Work stress and coping in the era of globalization. Routledge.[CrossRef]
  28. Sarah Oldbury, R. G. N., SCPHN, M. P., & Karen Adams, R. N. (2015). The impact of infant crying on the parent-infant relationship. Community Practitioner, 88(3), 29.
  29. Yang, Z., Cohen, W., & Salakhudinov, R. (2016, June). Revisiting semi-supervised learning with graph embeddings. In International conference on machine learning (pp. 40-48). PMLR.
  30. Kiburz, K. M., Allen, T. D., & French, K. A. (2017). Work–family conflict and mindfulness: Investigating the effectiveness of a brief training intervention. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38(7), 1016-1037.[CrossRef]
  31. Cheng, D., Chan, X. W., Amarnani, R. K., & Farivar, F. (2021). Finding humour in work–life conflict: Distinguishing the effects of individual and co-worker humour. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 125, 103538.[CrossRef]
  32. Kahn, R. L., Wolfe, D. M., Quinn, R. P., Snoek, J. D., & Rosenthal, R. A. (1964). Conflict and ambiguity studies in organizational roles and individual stress. Int. J. Stress Manag, 1, 309-322.
  33. Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: a new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American psychologist, 44(3), 513.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and psychological measurement, 30(3), 607-610.[CrossRef]
  35. Kirchmeyer, C., & Cohen, A. (1992). Multicultural groups: Their performance and reactions with constructive conflict. Group & Organization Management, 17(2), 153-170.[CrossRef]
  36. Rahim, N. B. (2019). Work-family conflict, coping strategies, and flourishing: Testing for mediation. Asian Academy of Management Journal, 24(2).[CrossRef]
  37. Chung, J., Gulcehre, C., Cho, K., & Bengio, Y. (2014). Empirical evaluation of gated recurrent neural networks on sequence modelling. arXiv preprint arXiv:1412.3555.
  38. Freire, C., & Bettencourt, C. (2020). Impact of ethical leadership on job satisfaction: the mediating effect of work–family conflict. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 41(2), 319-330.[CrossRef]
  39. Hung, C. H., & Lin, C. Y. (2015). Using concept mapping to evaluate knowledge structure in problem-based learning. BMC medical education, 15(1), 1-9.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Cho, S., Kim, S., Chin, S. W., & Ahmad, U. (2020). Daily effects of continuous ICT demands on work–family conflict: Negative spillover and role conflict. Stress and Health, 36(4), 533-545.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  41. Hult, G. T. M., Hair Jr, J. F., Proksch, D., Sarstedt, M., Pinkwart, A., & Ringle, C. M. (2018). Addressing endogeneity in international marketing applications of partial least squares structural equation modelling. Journal of International Marketing, 26(3), 1-21.[CrossRef]
  42. Wang, I. A., Lee, B. W., & Wu, S. T. (2017). The relationships among work-family conflict, turnover intention and organizational citizenship behaviour in the hospitality industry of Taiwan. International Journal of Manpower, 38(8), 1130-1142.[CrossRef]
  43. Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of marketing research, 18(1), 39-50.[CrossRef]
  44. Huang, S., van der Veen, R., & Song, Z. (2018). The impact of coping strategies on occupational stress and turnover intentions among hotel employees. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 27(8), 926-945.[CrossRef]
  45. Lee, Y. K., Choi, J., Moon, B. Y., & Babin, B. J. (2014). Codes of ethics, corporate philanthropy, and employee responses. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 39, 97-106.[CrossRef]
  46. Afriyie, S., Du, J., & Musah, A. A. I. (2020). Innovation and knowledge sharing of SME in an emerging economy; the moderating effect of transformational leadership style. International Journal of Innovation Management, 24(04), 2050034.[CrossRef]
  47. Lee, M. F., & Syaid, S. (2017). Factors Contributing towards Malaysian Technical University (MTU) Student Mental Health. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities.
  48. Ali, A. K., Al-Dubai, S. A. R., Shahin, M. A., Al-Othmali, A. I. M., Abdoh, D. S., & Zeidan, Z. A. (2021). Association between quality of work life and stress among nurses in a tertiary care hospital in Saudi Arabia. Nursing and Midwifery Studies, 10(2), 130-135.[CrossRef]

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Dankwa, S. ., Otoo, S., Annan-Nunoo, S., & Gyasi, K. (2023). An Assessment of Coping Strategies on Work-family Conflict and Job Performance in Ghana. Universal Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 3(1), 46–60.
DOI: 10.31586/ujssh.2023.734
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  1. Che, X. X., Zhou, Z. E., Kessler, S. R., & Spector, P. E. (2017). Stressors beget stressors: The effect of passive leadership on employee health through workload and work–family conflict. Work & Stress, 31(4), 338-354.[CrossRef]
  2. Burke, R. J., El-Kot, G., & Wolpin, J. (2016). Sex differences in work experiences and work outcomes among Egyptian managers and professionals: an exploratory study. Journal of Intercultural Management, 8(1), 7-29.[CrossRef]
  3. Okonkwo, E. A., & Icha-Ituma, A. (2017). Assessing Nigerian Female Health Workers When Job Stress and Tenure Impact on Work-To-Family Conflict. African Journal of Social Sciences and Management Studies, 1(1), 82-93.
  4. Greenhaus, J. H., & Powell, G. N. (2006). When work and family are allies: A theory of work-family enrichment. Academy of management review, 31(1), 72-92.[CrossRef]
  5. Ahmad, A. (2008). Job, family and individual factors as predictors of work-family conflict. The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, 4(1), 57-65.
  6. Akkas, M. A., Hossain, M. I., & Rhaman, S. (2015). Causes and consequences of work-family conflict (WFC) among the female employees in Bangladesh: an empirical study. Journal of business and economics, 6(12), 2063-2071.[CrossRef]
  7. Barnett, R. C., & Hyde, J. S. (2001). Women, men, work, and family: An expansionist theory. American psychologist, 56(10), 781.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Akram, B., Bibi, B., Ashfaq Ahmed, M., & Kausar, N. (2022). Work-family conflict and suicidal ideation among physicians of Pakistan: the moderating role of perceived life satisfaction. OMEGA-journal of Death and Dying, 85(2), 465-482.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Ernst Kossek, E., & Ozeki, C. (1998). Work–family conflict, policies, and the job–life satisfaction relationship: A review and directions for organizational behaviour–human resources research. Journal of applied psychology, 83(2), 139.[CrossRef]
  10. Gamor, E., Amissah, E. F., Amissah, A., & Nartey, E. (2018). Factors of work-family conflict in the hospitality industry in Ghana. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 17(4), 482-501.[CrossRef]
  11. Connor-Smith, J. K., & Flachsbart, C. (2007). Relations between personality and coping: a meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 93(6), 1080.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Lu, Y., Hu, X. M., Huang, X. L., Zhuang, X. D., Guo, P., Feng, L. F., ... & Hao, Y. T. (2017). The relationship between job satisfaction, work stress, work–family conflict, and turnover intention among physicians in Guangdong, China: a cross-sectional study. BMJ open, 7(5), e014894.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Drummond, S., O’Driscoll, M. P., Brough, P., Kalliath, T., Siu, O. L., Timms, C., ... & Lo, D. (2017). The relationship of social support with well-being outcomes via work–family conflict: Moderating effects of gender, dependants and nationality. Human Relations, 70(5), 544-565.[CrossRef]
  14. Netemeyer, R. G., Boles, J. S., & McMurrian, R. (1996). Development and validation of work–family conflict and family–work conflict scales. Journal of applied psychology, 81(4), 400.[CrossRef]
  15. Patel, S. P., & Cunningham, C. J. (2012). Religion, resources, and work-family balance. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 15(4), 389-401.[CrossRef]
  16. Spector, P. E., Cooper, C. L., Poelmans, S., Allen, T. D., O’driscoll, M., Sanchez, J. I., ... & Yu, S. (2017). A cross-national comparative study of work-family stressors, working hours, and well-being: China and Latin America versus the Anglo world. In International Human Resource Management (pp. 257-277). Routledge.[CrossRef]
  17. Lazarus, R. S. (2003). Author's response: The Lazarus Manifesto for positive psychology and psychology in general. Psychological Inquiry, 14(2), 173-189.[CrossRef]
  18. Bliese, P. D., Edwards, J. R., & Sonnentag, S. (2017). Stress and well-being at work: A century of empirical trends reflecting theoretical and societal influences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(3), 389.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Ames-Guerrero, R. J., Barreda-Parra, V. A., Huamani-Cahua, J. C., & Banaszak-Holl, J. (2021). Self-reported psychological problems and coping strategies: a web-based study in Peruvian population during COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), 1-17.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Nabong, T. K. M. (2012). An exploratory study of work-family conflicts and enrichment of front-line hotel employees in the Philippines (Master's thesis, University of Stavanger, Norway).
  21. Piotrowski, M. J., Piquini, P., & Da Silva, J. L. (2010). Density functional theory investigation of 3 d, 4 d, and 5 d 13-atom metal clusters. Physical Review B, 81(15), 155446.[CrossRef]
  22. Frye, N. K., & Breaugh, J. A. (2004). Family-friendly policies, supervisor support, work–family conflict, family–work conflict, and satisfaction: A test of a conceptual model. Journal of Business and Psychology, 19(2), 197-220.[CrossRef]
  23. Rotondo, D. M., Carlson, D. S., & Kincaid, J. F. (2003). Coping with multiple dimensions of work‐family conflict. Personnel review.[CrossRef]
  24. Amazue, L. O., & Onyishi, I. E. (2016). Stress coping strategies perceived organizational support and marital status as predictors of work–life balance among Nigerian bank employees. Social Indicators Research, 128, 147-159.[CrossRef]
  25. Achour, M., Khalil, S. B. A., Ahmad, B. B., Nor, M. R. M., & Yusoff, M. Y. Z. B. M. (2017). Management and supervisory support as a moderator of work–family demands and women’s well-being: A case study of Muslim female academicians in Malaysia. Humanomics.[CrossRef]
  26. Mustapa, N. S., Noor, K. M., & Mutalib, M. A. (2018). Why can't we have both? A discussion on work-life balance and women’s career advancement in Malaysia. Journal of Asian Finance Economics and Business.[CrossRef]
  27. Bhagat, R. S., Segovis, J., & Nelson, T. (2016). Work stress and coping in the era of globalization. Routledge.[CrossRef]
  28. Sarah Oldbury, R. G. N., SCPHN, M. P., & Karen Adams, R. N. (2015). The impact of infant crying on the parent-infant relationship. Community Practitioner, 88(3), 29.
  29. Yang, Z., Cohen, W., & Salakhudinov, R. (2016, June). Revisiting semi-supervised learning with graph embeddings. In International conference on machine learning (pp. 40-48). PMLR.
  30. Kiburz, K. M., Allen, T. D., & French, K. A. (2017). Work–family conflict and mindfulness: Investigating the effectiveness of a brief training intervention. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38(7), 1016-1037.[CrossRef]
  31. Cheng, D., Chan, X. W., Amarnani, R. K., & Farivar, F. (2021). Finding humour in work–life conflict: Distinguishing the effects of individual and co-worker humour. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 125, 103538.[CrossRef]
  32. Kahn, R. L., Wolfe, D. M., Quinn, R. P., Snoek, J. D., & Rosenthal, R. A. (1964). Conflict and ambiguity studies in organizational roles and individual stress. Int. J. Stress Manag, 1, 309-322.
  33. Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: a new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American psychologist, 44(3), 513.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and psychological measurement, 30(3), 607-610.[CrossRef]
  35. Kirchmeyer, C., & Cohen, A. (1992). Multicultural groups: Their performance and reactions with constructive conflict. Group & Organization Management, 17(2), 153-170.[CrossRef]
  36. Rahim, N. B. (2019). Work-family conflict, coping strategies, and flourishing: Testing for mediation. Asian Academy of Management Journal, 24(2).[CrossRef]
  37. Chung, J., Gulcehre, C., Cho, K., & Bengio, Y. (2014). Empirical evaluation of gated recurrent neural networks on sequence modelling. arXiv preprint arXiv:1412.3555.
  38. Freire, C., & Bettencourt, C. (2020). Impact of ethical leadership on job satisfaction: the mediating effect of work–family conflict. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 41(2), 319-330.[CrossRef]
  39. Hung, C. H., & Lin, C. Y. (2015). Using concept mapping to evaluate knowledge structure in problem-based learning. BMC medical education, 15(1), 1-9.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Cho, S., Kim, S., Chin, S. W., & Ahmad, U. (2020). Daily effects of continuous ICT demands on work–family conflict: Negative spillover and role conflict. Stress and Health, 36(4), 533-545.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
  41. Hult, G. T. M., Hair Jr, J. F., Proksch, D., Sarstedt, M., Pinkwart, A., & Ringle, C. M. (2018). Addressing endogeneity in international marketing applications of partial least squares structural equation modelling. Journal of International Marketing, 26(3), 1-21.[CrossRef]
  42. Wang, I. A., Lee, B. W., & Wu, S. T. (2017). The relationships among work-family conflict, turnover intention and organizational citizenship behaviour in the hospitality industry of Taiwan. International Journal of Manpower, 38(8), 1130-1142.[CrossRef]
  43. Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of marketing research, 18(1), 39-50.[CrossRef]
  44. Huang, S., van der Veen, R., & Song, Z. (2018). The impact of coping strategies on occupational stress and turnover intentions among hotel employees. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 27(8), 926-945.[CrossRef]
  45. Lee, Y. K., Choi, J., Moon, B. Y., & Babin, B. J. (2014). Codes of ethics, corporate philanthropy, and employee responses. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 39, 97-106.[CrossRef]
  46. Afriyie, S., Du, J., & Musah, A. A. I. (2020). Innovation and knowledge sharing of SME in an emerging economy; the moderating effect of transformational leadership style. International Journal of Innovation Management, 24(04), 2050034.[CrossRef]
  47. Lee, M. F., & Syaid, S. (2017). Factors Contributing towards Malaysian Technical University (MTU) Student Mental Health. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities.
  48. Ali, A. K., Al-Dubai, S. A. R., Shahin, M. A., Al-Othmali, A. I. M., Abdoh, D. S., & Zeidan, Z. A. (2021). Association between quality of work life and stress among nurses in a tertiary care hospital in Saudi Arabia. Nursing and Midwifery Studies, 10(2), 130-135.[CrossRef]

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