Background: Nicotine pouches, gummies, and candies have emerged as popular alternatives to traditional tobacco products among U.S. adolescents. While parental educational attainment is generally associated with youth substance use, marginalization-related diminished returns (MDRs) suggest that this effect may be weaker in marginalized populations, including non-Latino White communities. In particular, place-based marginalization—such as neighborhood economic disadvantage and school-level poverty—may attenuate the benefits of parental education. This study examines MDRs in the relationship between parental educational attainment and nicotine pouch/gummy/candy use among non-Latino White 12th graders in the 2024 Monitoring the Future (MTF) study. Methods: This study analyzed nationally representative data from the 2024 MTF study, focusing on non-Latino White 12th graders who reported parental education levels and adolescents’ use of nicotine pouch/gummy/candy. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to estimate the effects of parental education on adolescents’ use of nicotine pouches, gummies, and candies, while adjusting for demographic covariates. Place-based marginalization was operationalized using rural vs urban /suburban residence. Interaction terms tested whether the effect of parental education varied based on place of residence. Results: Higher parental educational attainment was associated with lower use of nicotine pouches, gummies, and candies. However, this effect was significantly weaker in rural areas. Conclusion: Public health interventions should account for place-based disparities rather than assuming a uniform effect of SES factors. This study highlights the need for policy responses that address structural inequities beyond individual family SES.

Objective: To examine racial/ethnic differences in the associations of family socioeconomic status (SES), neighborhood SES, and inhibitory control with body mass index (BMI) in 9-10-year-old children using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Methods: This cross-sectional study included a diverse sample of children aged 9-10 years, representing non-Latino White, Black, Latino, Asian, and Other racial/ethnic groups. BMI was the primary outcome. Key predictors were family SES, neighborhood SES, and inhibitory control. Multivariable regression models were stratified by race/ethnicity to identify group-specific associations. Results: Race/ethnic groups differed in psychosocial correlates of childhood BMI at age 9 and 10. Among non-Latino White children, higher family income (B = -0.086, p < 0.001), higher parental education (B = -0.069, p < 0.001), and living in a married household (B = -0.079, p < 0.001) were associated with lower BMI. Additionally, the presence of healthy food options in the zip code (B = -0.030, p = 0.032) was linked to lower BMI, while lack of planning (B = 0.032, p = 0.030) was associated with higher BMI. For non-Latino Black children, positive urgency (B = -0.068, p = 0.022) was negatively associated with BMI, while other factors such as family SES and neighborhood SES did not show significant associations. For Latino children, higher family income (B = -0.093, p = 0.001) and parental education (B = -0.099, p < 0.001) were associated with lower BMI. In this group, male gender (B = 0.043, p = 0.033) was associated with higher BMI. Among Asian children, higher family income (B = -0.199, p = 0.006) and parental education (B = -0.144, p = 0.037) were significantly associated with lower BMI. For children in the "Other" racial/ethnic category, higher family income (B = -0.101, p = 0.023), living in a married household (B = -0.076, p = 0.026), and higher median income in the zip code (B = -0.083, p = 0.013) were associated with lower BMI. In this group, male children had lower BMI compared to females (B = -0.089, p = 0.001). Conclusion: The findings highlight substantial racial/ethnic differences in the psychosocial and socioeconomic correlates of BMI in children. There is a need for tailored interventions that target social determinants of childhood high BMI. One size does not fit all.

Background: The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme heat exposure is a significant consequence of climate change, with broad public health implications. While many health risks associated with heat exposure are well-documented, less research has focused on its impact on children’s cognitive function. Objectives: This study examines the relationship between extreme heat exposure and various domains of cognitive function in children. Methods: Data were drawn from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Key variables included race/ethnicity, age, gender, family socioeconomic status (SES), heatwave exposure, and multiple cognitive domains: total composite score, fluid composite score, crystallized intelligence, reading ability, picture vocabulary, pattern recognition, card sorting, and list recall. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used for data analysis. Results: A total of 11,878 children were included in the analysis. Findings revealed significant associations between extreme heat exposure and lower cognitive performance across multiple domains. The strongest adjusted effects were observed in pattern recognition (B = −0.064, p < 0.001) and reading ability (B = −0.050, p < 0.001), both within the learning domain, as well as total composite cognitive ability (B = −0.067, p < 0.001), fluid composite (B = −0.053, p < 0.001), and crystallized intelligence (B = −0.061, p < 0.001), all within general cognitive ability. Weaker but still significant associations were found for list recall (B = −0.025, p = 0.006) and card sorting (B = −0.043, p < 0.001) within the memory domain, as well as picture vocabulary (B = −0.025, p = 0.008) within general cognitive ability. These associations remained significant after controlling for demographic factors, race/ethnicity, family SES, and neighborhood SES. Conclusions: This study underscores the impact of climate change on cognitive function disparities, particularly in learning and general cognitive ability among children exposed to extreme heat. Findings highlight the need for targeted interventions to mitigate the cognitive risks associated with heat exposure in vulnerable populations.

Background: School characteristics — including poverty levels, teacher experience, graduation rates, and college enrollment — are essential determinants of students’ academic outcomes and long-term success. Families often use their socioeconomic resources, such as parental education and household income, to secure access to high-quality schools with favorable attributes. However, Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) theory suggests that Black families may not experience the same benefits of high family SES due to structural barriers. This study examines the association between family SES and school characteristics, focusing on racial disparities in access to high-quality educational environments. Objective: To investigate the relationship between family SES (parental education and household income) and multiple school characteristics (poverty, teacher experience, graduation rates, and college enrollment), and to assess racial differences in these associations. Methods: Data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, a national sample of US adolescents, was analyzed. We used multivariate regression models to examine associations between family SES and school characteristics and to test for interactions by race, specifically comparing Black and White adolescents. Results: Higher family SES was associated with positive school characteristics overall, including lower school poverty, greater teacher experience, and increased graduation and college enrollment rates. However, these positive effects of high family SES on school characteristics were significantly weaker for Black adolescents than for White adolescents. Black adolescents from high-income families were more likely than White adolescents from similar backgrounds to attend schools with higher poverty rates, less experienced teachers, and reduced graduation and college enrollment rates. Conclusion: Our findings highlight persistent racial inequities in access to educational opportunities, even among families with comparable socioeconomic resources. The diminished returns of family SES for Black adolescents underscore the role of structural barriers in limiting access to high-quality schools. These findings emphasize the need for policy interventions to address systemic inequalities that hinder Black families from fully leveraging their SES to access favorable educational environments.

Background: Parental employment is a significant social determinant of children's developmental outcomes, shaping their cognitive and behavioral trajectories. However, the effects of parental employment may not be equally protective across racial groups. The Minority Diminished Returns (MDRs) framework suggests that socioeconomic status (SES) factors, such as employment, yield fewer protective benefits for Black families compared to White families. Objective: This study investigates the diminished returns of parental employment on trauma and associated neurocognitive and behavioral outcomes in children, with a focus on racial variation in these effects. Methods: Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, a large and diverse sample of children was analyzed. We applied MDRs theory and social determinants of health frameworks to examine the association between parental employment, trauma, and children's cognitive and behavioral outcomes. The analysis controlled for family SES, neighborhood factors, and racial group differences. Results: Preliminary findings suggest that while parental employment is generally protective against trauma, the strength of this association is diminished for Black children. Black families with employed parents experience higher levels of trauma and stress compared to their White counterparts, which may contribute to racial disparities in cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Conclusion: Parental employment may not equally buffer against trauma-related risks for Black children, reflecting the broader pattern of diminished returns for racially disadvantaged groups. These findings highlight the need for policies addressing the unequal benefits of SES across racial groups.

Background: Socioeconomic status (SES) is a well-established predictor of cognitive function in children, but the neurobiological pathways through which SES influences cognitive outcomes remain underexplored. This study examines the role of the cingulate gyrus (region of the brain that is involved in emotion regulation, decision-making, error detection, and cognitive control) in mediating the relationship between SES and cognitive performance, with a focus on whether these effects vary by sex. Objective: To investigate the role of the cingulate gyrus in mediating the association between social gradients (family SES) and cognitive function in children and assess potential sex differences in these pathways. Methods: Data were drawn from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Cognitive function was assessed using a composite measure of executive function and general cognitive ability. Structural MRI data were used to measure the volume of the cingulate gyrus. Path analysis was conducted to examine the mediating role of the cingulate gyrus in the association between SES and cognitive function. Interaction terms were included to test for sex differences. Results: Higher SES was significantly associated with a larger cingulate gyrus volume and better cognitive function. The volume of the left cingulate gyrus partially mediated the relationship between family and neighborhood SES and cognitive function, explaining a portion of the social gradient in cognitive outcomes. No significant sex differences were found in these mediating effects. Conclusions: The cingulate gyrus partially mediates the link between SES and cognitive function in children. These findings suggest that social disparities in cognitive function may operate, in part, through neurobiological changes such as those in the cingulate gyrus, without significant variation by sex.

Background: Extreme heat exposure is an increasing public health concern, particularly in the context of climate change. Limited research has explored its impact on children's cognitive outcomes. This study investigates the association between extreme heat exposure and cognitive function in 9–10-year-old children, using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Additionally, we assess whether this effect is independent of socio-demographic factors such as race, family socioeconomic status (SES), and neighborhood SES. Methods: Data were drawn from the ABCD study, comprising over 10,000 children aged 9–10 years. Cognitive function was assessed through standardized cognitive tests, while extreme heat exposure was estimated using geographic and climate data. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to examine the direct effects of heat exposure on cognitive outcomes and to account for potential confounding variables, including race, family SES, and neighborhood SES. Results: Black families, low SES households, and children from low SES neighborhoods were disproportionately exposed to extreme heat. Extreme heat exposure was significantly associated with lower cognitive function in children, and this association remained robust even after adjusting for socio-demographic factors. Conclusions: Extreme heat exposure is linked to diminished cognitive function in children, particularly among socio-economically disadvantaged and marginalized populations. Given the increasing frequency of extreme heat events due to climate change, future research should further explore these implications for children’s cognitive outcomes. Policy interventions that improve access to cooling infrastructure, expand green spaces, and prioritize at-risk populations are critical to mitigating the adverse cognitive effects of extreme heat in low SES communities.

Background: Socioeconomic status (SES) is traditionally viewed as a protective factor against impulsivity and subsequent tobacco use in youth. The prevailing model suggests that higher SES is associated with lower impulsivity, which in turn reduces the likelihood of future tobacco use. However, this pathway may not hold uniformly across racial groups due to differences in impulsivity and the phenomenon of Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs), where the protective effects of SES, such as educational attainment, tend to be weaker or even reversed for Black youth compared to their White counterparts. Objectives: This study aims to examine the racial heterogeneity in the pathway from childhood SES to impulsivity and subsequent tobacco use initiation during adolescence, focusing on differences between Black and White youth. Methods: Data were drawn from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, which includes a diverse sample of youth aged 9 to 16 years. The analysis examined the relationship between baseline family SES (age 9), impulsivity (age 9), and subsequent tobacco use (ages 9 to 16). Impulsivity was measured using the Urgency, Premeditation (lack of), Perseverance (lack of), Sensation Seeking, and Positive Urgency Impulsive Behavior Scale (UPPS-P). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed, with analyses stratified by race to explore potential differences in these associations. Results: Overall, 6,161 non-Latino White and 1,775 non-Latino Black adolescents entered our analysis. In the full sample, higher family SES was linked to lower childhood impulsivity and, consequently, less tobacco uses in adolescence. However, racial differences emerged upon stratification. Among White youth, higher SES was associated with lower impulsivity, leading to reduced tobacco use, consistent with the expected model. In contrast, among Black youth, higher SES was not associated with lower impulsivity, thereby disrupting the protective effect of SES on tobacco use through this pathway. These findings suggest that racial heterogeneity exists in the SES-impulsivity-tobacco use pathway, aligning with the MDRs framework, which highlights how structural factors may weaken the protective effects of high SES among Black youth. Conclusions: These findings underscore the importance of considering racial heterogeneity in the relationships between SES, impulsivity, and tobacco use. The observed disparities suggest a need for targeted interventions that address the unique challenges faced by Black youth, who may not experience the same protective benefits of high SES as their White peers. These results carry significant implications for public health strategies aimed at reducing tobacco use in racially diverse populations.