Background: Educational attainment is strongly linked to increased employment opportunities, higher income, and greater financial security, making its inverse relationship with reliance on social welfare programs well-documented. However, consistent with the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) theory, the protective effects of education may be weaker for racial and ethnic minority groups compared to non-Latino Whites. This study examines whether the impact of educational attainment (measured as years of schooling) on social welfare use differs between Caribbean Black and White adults in the United States, focusing on outcomes since age 18 and in the past year. Objective: To investigate the relationship between years of schooling and the likelihood of using social welfare programs, while exploring whether this association varies between Caribbean Black and White adults, in alignment with the MDRs framework. Methods: Data were derived from the National Survey of American Life (NSAL), a nationally representative dataset with a robust sample of Black and White adults in the United States. The study focused on Caribbean Black and White participants aged 18 and older. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to examine the relationship between years of schooling and social welfare use, adjusting for covariates including age, gender, employment status, and marital status. Interaction terms were used to assess potential differences in the returns of education across racial groups. Results: Higher educational attainment was associated with reduced likelihood of using social welfare programs overall. However, consistent with the MDRs framework, the protective effect of education was weaker for Caribbean Black individuals compared to their White counterparts. Caribbean Blacks with similar levels of education as Whites were more likely to report using social welfare programs since age 18 and in the past year, highlighting diminished returns on education for this population. Conclusion: This study extends the MDRs framework to Caribbean Black populations, a group rarely studied in the U.S., revealing significant disparities in the economic benefits of education. The findings underscore the need for policies that address systemic barriers limiting the economic returns of education for racial and ethnic minorities, including Caribbean Blacks, to promote greater equity in social and economic outcomes.Full article

Background: Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) theory posits that the health benefits of socioeconomic resources, such as education, are smaller for marginalized and minoritized populations, including immigrants. While MDRs have been extensively documented for racial and ethnic minorities, less is known about whether these diminished returns extend to immigrant populations. This study tested MDRs of education on various health and cognitive outcomes, including self-rated health (SRH), cognitive function, numeracy, number of chronic medical conditions, and limitations in activities of daily living (ADLs) among immigrants compared to non-immigrants in the United States. Objective. To examine whether educational attainment confers weaker protective effects on SRH, cognitive function, numeracy, chronic medical conditions, and ADLs in immigrants compared to non-immigrants, confirming the presence of MDRs across these domains. Methods: We used data from the Understanding America Study (UAS), a nationally representative survey of U.S. adults. We tested the association between educational attainment and five outcomes—SRH, cognitive function, numeracy, number of chronic medical conditions, and limitations in ADLs—across immigrant and non-immigrant groups. Multivariate regression models were employed, adjusting for key sociodemographic covariates. Results: The protective effects of education on a range of health outcomes were significantly weaker for immigrants compared to non-immigrants. Education level showed weaker associations with SRH, cognitive function, numeracy, number of chronic conditions, and ADLs among immigrants. These findings suggest that even at higher levels of educational attainment, immigrants experience poorer health and cognitive functioning than their U.S.-born counterparts. Conclusion: This study offers strong evidence for the MDRs of education on multiple health outcomes among U.S. immigrants. One possible explanation is that, despite achieving higher levels of education, immigrants often face structural barriers—such as discrimination, limited access to resources, and economic inequities—that constrain the health-related benefits typically associated with educational attainment. Additionally, a portion of immigrant education may be acquired outside the United States, where credentials may not be fully recognized or rewarded within the U.S. labor market. These findings highlight the importance of policies aimed at addressing systemic inequities and improving access to healthcare, employment opportunities, and social support for immigrant communities. Future research should further explore the mechanisms underlying these diminished returns and identify policy solutions to reduce their impact. Keywords: Educational Attainment, Immigrants, Nativity, Self-Rated Health, Chronic Disease, Activities of Daily Living (ADL), Cognitive FunctionFull article

“To Be Twice as Good to Get Half” is a common mindset among high aspiration and ambition Black individuals in the U.S., capturing the lived reality of Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs). This paper explains that MDRs reflect how, even with high levels of ambition, self-efficacy, education, and income, Black individuals and other marginalized groups do not experience the same protective benefits for health and well-being as White populations. Systemic obstacles embedded within U.S. society weaken the expected returns on socioeconomic achievements for racialized individuals, creating a reality where “being twice as good” still results in lesser outcomes. High-SES Black individuals, for instance, continue to face significant risks for adverse outcomes, such as depression and chronic disease, due to structural inequities across domains like labor market discrimination, segregation, and accumulated disadvantage from childhood. Our analysis identifies key mechanisms—including interpersonal discrimination, lower-quality education, and structural racism in sectors like banking, policing, and real estate—that erode the protective effects of SES across racial lines. Mediating factors, such as chronic stress, allostatic load, and epigenetic changes over the life course, further compound these diminished returns, weakening the expected physical and mental health benefits. Drawing on extensive evidence from U.S. national and local datasets and corroborated by international studies, this paper underscores the necessity of policies that dismantle structural barriers rather than relying solely on SES improvements. Recommendations include implementing multi-sectoral policies, recognizing the unique challenges of middle-class non-White populations, and approaching policy with humility, acknowledging that achieving equity is a long-term endeavor. By challenging the “bootstraps” narrative, this paper advocates for structural interventions aimed at genuine health and economic equity for all racial and socioeconomic groups. While we provide an in-depth analysis of MDRs’ phenomena, mechanisms, mediators, and policy implications, the experience is often distilled as, “I have to be twice as good to get half.”Full article

Objective: The knowledge, attitudes, and practices of SUA students about the use of plastics containing endocrine disruptors were investigated in this study. Methodology: A study with 150 participants was conducted to assess individuals' knowledge about endocrine disruptors, attitudes, and plastic use practices. Results: The findings indicate that the participants possessed an average degree of knowledge 50.2 ± 3.85 with the main emphasis of awareness being generic concepts rather than specific substances. Regarding the potential health impacts of endocrine-disrupting chemicals present in plastics, respondents' attitudes ranged from fair to positive, with a mean score of 3.5 ±0.09 indicating a fair attitude overall. Conclusion: It is important to practice polite behavior and increase public awareness of safe plastic disposal methods. Surprising only 38.0% of the participants mentioned that they refrain from heating their food in plastic containers to reduce their exposure to plastics. Students' practices revealed a notable dependence on plastic products despite their awareness of the concerns surrounding endocrine disruptors, as most of them reported using plastic water bottles, plastic cups, and plastic bags almost always. Additionally, only 20.7% of the respondents consistently implemented strategies to prevent exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Recommendation: The study recommended increasing the use of cleaner plastic substitutes and improving educational programs to convert information into practical actions. Policies that encourage environmentally friendly behavior and raise public awareness of safe plastic disposal techniques should be put into practice.Full article

Background: Epigenetic aging, measured through various DNA methylation-based clocks, may have implications for predicting disease risk. However, the sensitivity of different epigenetic clocks that have emerged as biomarkers for biological aging and in predicting physical and mental health outcomes remains uncertain. This study examines the age and sex-adjusted associations between multiple epigenetic age acceleration measures and three key health indicators, including self-rated health, depressive symptoms, and body mass index (BMI), in a nationally representative sample of U.S. middle-aged and older adults. Methods: We analyzed data from 4,018 adults in the 2016 wave of the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), which included several epigenetic age acceleration measures: HORVATH, HANNUM, LEVINE, HORVATHSKIN, LIN, WEIDNER, VIDALBRALO, YANG, ZHANG, BOCKLANDT, GARAGNANI, and GRIMAGE. Linear regression models were used to assess the associations between epigenetic age acceleration and self-rated health (poor health), depressive symptoms, and BMI, adjusting for age and sex. Results: We found significant positive associations between epigenetic age acceleration and worse self-rated health, higher depressive symptoms, and increased BMI. However, these associations varied across different epigenetic clocks, with some measures potentially having more consistent utility for specific health outcomes than others. Conclusion: Epigenetic age acceleration is linked to poorer self-rated health, greater depressive symptoms, and higher BMI, but choosing which epigenetic clock(s) to use is also important. These findings underscore the need to consider multiple epigenetic aging markers when assessing health risks and highlight the potential for particular clocks to serve as more sensitive indicators of physical and mental health outcomes.Full article

Background: Women have consistently shown lower quit rates in tobacco cessation programs compared to men. This gender disparity persists despite comprehensive interventions and access to cessation resources. While prior studies suggest that factors such as social support, chronic disease burden, and socioeconomic status may contribute to these differences, there is limited empirical evidence to confirm these mechanisms. Aims: This study aimed to investigate potential mechanisms underlying gender differences in quit rates in a tobacco cessation program, testing whether demographic, socioeconomic, health, or behavioral factors explain the observed disparities. Methods: Participants were assigned to one of three smoking cessation interventions: an in-person program (CEASE), a self-help approach, or an online/hybrid program. The main outcome measured was smoking abstinence, evaluated three months after the intervention. Secondary analyses explored whether demographic, socioeconomic, health, or tobacco use-related factors mediated the association between gender and quit rates. Results: Women had significantly lower quit rates than men (p < 0.01). This association remained significant after adjusting for demographic, socioeconomic, health, and addiction-related factors. While women reported higher social support and a higher prevalence of chronic cardiometabolic conditions, these factors did not explain the gender disparity in quit rates. Conclusions: Gender differences in quit rates persist despite controlling for known factors that could influence cessation success. Although women had higher social support, they had lower quit rate. Future research should explore unmeasured variables, such as psychological, biological, and structural influences, to develop more effective cessation strategies tailored for women.Full article

Background: While educational attainment is generally associated with reduced reliance on Social Security and disability benefits, Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) theory suggests that the socioeconomic benefits of educational attainment are not equally distributed across racial groups and are weaker for minoritized populations. This study explores the association between educational attainment and reliance on Social Security and disability benefits among Black and White adults in the United States. Objective: Building on the MDRs framework, we analyzed data from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) 2023 to examine how educational attainment impacts reliance on Social Security disability income, disability benefits, and public assistance for Black and White adults. Methods: We used a nationally representative sample of Black and White adults from the NHIS 2023 dataset. The outcomes assessed were reliance on three income sources: (1) Social Security disability income, (2) disability benefit income, and (3) public assistance disability income. Educational attainment was classified into three levels: less than high school (reference), high school diploma to some college, and college graduate or more. Logistic regression models assessed the relationship between educational attainment and reliance on each income source, with separate analyses for Black and White adults to evaluate differential effects. Results: Higher levels of educational attainment (high school diploma to some college and college graduate or more) were associated with lower odds of relying on Social Security disability, disability benefits, and public assistance. However, the protective effects of educational attainment were notably stronger for White adults than for Black adults. Among Black adults, even high educational attainment showed limited effectiveness in reducing reliance on these income sources, underscoring the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) phenomenon. Conclusions: Although educational attainment reduces reliance on Social Security and disability-related income sources, these protective effects are less pronounced for Black adults compared to White adults. The findings reveal persistent racial disparities in the economic returns of education, suggesting that structural factors may undermine the socioeconomic and health benefits of educational achievement for Black Americans. Targeted policy interventions may be needed to improve economic stability for Black adults, including those with higher educational credentials.Full article

Objective: This study investigates the pathways linking socioeconomic status (SES), trauma, early puberty, and tobacco use, with a focus on how these relationships differ by sex. Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, we explore how SES and race contribute to trauma exposure, which in turn may influence early puberty and tobacco use. The study also examines potential mediating effects of trauma and early puberty on the association between SES and tobacco use, while comparing these pathways for males and females. Methods: Data were drawn from the ABCD study, and structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to test direct and indirect pathways between SES, trauma, early puberty, and tobacco use. The sample was stratified by sex to assess differences in these relationships for males and females. Key predictors included SES, race, and age, while outcomes were trauma, early puberty, and tobacco use. The model assessed mediating effects of trauma and early puberty on tobacco use. Results: Trauma was a significant predictor of early puberty for females (B = 0.032, SE = 0.015, p = 0.039) but not males. Early puberty was significantly linked to tobacco use for females (B = 0.048, SE = 0.015, p = 0.001) but not for males. Additionally, trauma had an effect on tobacco use among females (B = 0.048, SE = 0.014, p < 0.001) but not males. Lower SES was significantly associated with higher trauma exposure for both males (B = -0.109, SE = 0.014, p < 0.001) and females (B = -0.110, SE = 0.015, p < 0.001). Conclusions: The findings suggest that trauma and early puberty play more significant roles in the pathways from SES to tobacco use for females than for males. While trauma and early puberty are crucial mediators for females, these factors are less predictive for males. These results highlight the importance of sex-specific interventions targeting trauma and early puberty as pathways to early tobacco use.Full article