Background: Parental education is a key determinant of academic performance, yet its protective effects may differ by race and ethnicity. The concept of Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) highlights the weaker association between socioeconomic resources and outcomes for marginalized populations, including Black and Latino youth. Objective: To investigate whether the positive association between parental education and school performance (letter grades) is weaker for Black and Latino youth compared to non-Latino White youth. Methods: Data were drawn from the Monitoring the Future (MTF) 2023 study. The sample included Black, Latino, and non-Latino White youth. The outcome was a nine-level continuous measure of academic performance based on self-reported letter grades, with higher scores indicating better performance. Multivariate regression models tested interactions between parental education and race/ethnicity in predicting grades, adjusting for confounders such as family income, gender, and school characteristics. Results: A total number of 7584 12^th graders entered the study. Parental education was positively associated with school performance across all groups, but the magnitude of this association was significantly smaller for Black and Latino youth compared to non-Latino White youth. Even after controlling for socioeconomic and contextual factors, the racial and ethnic differences in the strength of this association persisted. Conclusions: Our findings provide evidence of Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) in the academic domain, with Black and Latino youth experiencing weaker benefits of parental education on school performance. These disparities suggest that structural barriers and systemic inequities undermine the translation of parental educational attainment into academic success for marginalized groups. Policy interventions must address these structural barriers to promote equity in educational outcomes.

Background: Most neuroscience research has predominantly focused on White, middle-class populations, leading to gaps in understanding how socioeconomic status (SES) influences brain development and health behaviors in racially diverse groups. Tobacco use, a major public health concern, is influenced by both family and neighborhood SES, with early initiation during adolescence predicting long-term health outcomes. The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study provides a unique opportunity to examine racial disparities in the pathways from SES to brain development and behavior, especially through the lens of Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns (MDRs), where the effects of SES are attenuated for minority groups. Objective: This study investigates racial variation in the associations between SES, cerebral cortical volume, and tobacco use initiation, comparing Black and White youth over 4-6 years of follow-up. Methods: Data from the ABCD study were analyzed to assess pathways from family income to adolescents’ cortical volume via the needs-to-income ratio, and from cortical volume to tobacco use initiation. Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate these pathways, stratified by race, with a focus on comparing Black and White participants. Covariates included family and neighborhood SES, demographic factors, and baseline behavioral measures. Results: We found that the positive association between income (via the needs-to-income ratio) and total cortical volume was significantly weaker for Black youth compared to White youth. Additionally, the link between larger total cortical volume and reduced risk of tobacco initiation was also weaker in Black adolescents. These findings were consistent over 4-6 years of follow-up, suggesting that Black youth experience diminished returns from higher SES in terms of brain development and behavioral outcomes. Conclusions: Our findings highlight significant racial disparities in the pathways from SES to brain development and tobacco use initiation, supporting the Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns (MDRs) framework. While higher SES is associated with larger cortical volumes and lower tobacco use risk in White youth, these associations are attenuated in Black adolescents.

Background: Puberty is a crucial developmental milestone that involves significant physiological, emotional, and behavioral changes. Early puberty onset, influenced by both biological and social factors, is associated with an increased risk of engaging in substance use, such as tobacco and marijuana. While high family income is generally linked to delayed puberty onset and lower behavioral risks, these benefits may not be equally protective for Black youth due to the phenomenon of Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs). MDRs suggest that higher family income does not offer the same protective effects for Black youth as it does for White youth, potentially leading to earlier puberty and increased substance use among high-income Black adolescents. Objective: This study aimed to investigate whether early puberty onset and associated positive urgency (impulsivity) mediate the relationship between family income and the initiation of tobacco and marijuana use over a six-year follow-up period among adolescents. Additionally, the study examined whether the effects of family income on early puberty onset differ by race, testing the hypothesis that high-income Black youth would experience earlier puberty onset compared to their high-income White peers. Methods: Data were sourced from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. Participants were 9-10-year-old adolescents at baseline, followed over a period of six years. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to assess whether early puberty onset mediated the effects of family income on substance use behaviors. Interaction terms between race and family income were included to test whether the impact of family income varies by race. Results: Early puberty onset and associated positive urgency partially explained the relationship between family income and the initiation of tobacco and marijuana use. High-income Black youth showed earlier puberty onset compared to their White counterparts. Earlier puberty onset then predicted higher positive urgency. These factors, in turn, were linked to higher rates of tobacco and marijuana initiation. Conclusions: This study provides additional evidence that the benefits of high family income do not extend equally to Black adolescents, particularly regarding delaying puberty onset and its consequences for substance use.

Objective: This study explores the relationship between neighborhood stress and Body Mass Index (BMI) in adolescents, while also examining whether this association differs between Black and White adolescents. Methods: Data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study were analyzed using linear regression models to examine the association between neighborhood stress (defined as a composite score based on three items measuring perceived safety and neighborhood fear) and BMI in adolescents, controlling for demographic and socioeconomic variables. We tested models both with and without interaction terms to assess whether race moderated the association. Stratified analyses were conducted to further explore potential differences between Black and White adolescents. Results: A positive association was observed between neighborhood stress and BMI across the overall sample. However, this association was weaker for Black adolescents compared to White adolescents, even after adjusting for potential confounders. Conclusions: The contribution of neighborhood stress to higher BMI in adolescents may vary by race. Our findings suggest that while neighborhood stress is associated with increased BMI, Black adolescents appear to be less affected by these stressors than their White peers. This weaker association could be due to the normalization of stress in environments where it is pervasive (what is common becomes normal) or the presence of other significant risk factors affecting BMI in Black youth, such as poverty, limited food access, food culture, and food deserts. Future research should explore processes of habituation, inoculation, or even sensitization to stress among Black populations, who are often exposed to a wide range of stressors throughout the life course.

Background: Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) theory posits that socioeconomic resources have weaker protective effects on health and behavior for racial and ethnic minorities compared to Whites. This study examines whether tobacco susceptibility, defined as curiosity, intention, and openness to future tobacco use, mediates the diminished returns of family income on tobacco initiation among Black adolescents. Methods: Data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study were analyzed. Participants were followed from age 9 to 16. All participants were tobacco naïve at baseline. Tobacco susceptibility was assessed through self-reported measures of curiosity, intention, and openness to future tobacco use. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine the relationship between family income, tobacco susceptibility, and tobacco initiation. Results: Overall, 10,653 Black or White youth entered our analysis. The analysis revealed that higher family income was less effective in preventing tobacco initiation among Black adolescents. Tobacco susceptibility significantly predicted tobacco initiation and partially mediated the relationship between family income and tobacco initiation. Conclusions: Tobacco susceptibility explains some of the diminished returns of family income on tobacco initiation among Black adolescents. Interventions aimed at reducing tobacco susceptibility may enhance the protective effects of family income and help mitigate health disparities.

Background: Socioeconomic status (SES) is traditionally viewed as a protective factor against impulsivity and subsequent tobacco use in youth. The prevailing model suggests that higher SES is associated with lower impulsivity, which in turn reduces the likelihood of future tobacco use. However, this pathway may not hold uniformly across racial groups due to differences in impulsivity and the phenomenon of Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs), where the protective effects of SES, such as educational attainment, tend to be weaker or even reversed for Black youth compared to their White counterparts. Objectives: This study aims to examine the racial heterogeneity in the pathway from childhood SES to impulsivity and subsequent tobacco use initiation during adolescence, focusing on differences between Black and White youth. Methods: Data were drawn from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, which includes a diverse sample of youth aged 9 to 16 years. The analysis examined the relationship between baseline family SES (age 9), impulsivity (age 9), and subsequent tobacco use (ages 9 to 16). Impulsivity was measured using the Urgency, Premeditation (lack of), Perseverance (lack of), Sensation Seeking, and Positive Urgency Impulsive Behavior Scale (UPPS-P). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed, with analyses stratified by race to explore potential differences in these associations. Results: Overall, 6,161 non-Latino White and 1,775 non-Latino Black adolescents entered our analysis. In the full sample, higher family SES was linked to lower childhood impulsivity and, consequently, less tobacco uses in adolescence. However, racial differences emerged upon stratification. Among White youth, higher SES was associated with lower impulsivity, leading to reduced tobacco use, consistent with the expected model. In contrast, among Black youth, higher SES was not associated with lower impulsivity, thereby disrupting the protective effect of SES on tobacco use through this pathway. These findings suggest that racial heterogeneity exists in the SES-impulsivity-tobacco use pathway, aligning with the MDRs framework, which highlights how structural factors may weaken the protective effects of high SES among Black youth. Conclusions: These findings underscore the importance of considering racial heterogeneity in the relationships between SES, impulsivity, and tobacco use. The observed disparities suggest a need for targeted interventions that address the unique challenges faced by Black youth, who may not experience the same protective benefits of high SES as their White peers. These results carry significant implications for public health strategies aimed at reducing tobacco use in racially diverse populations.

Background: Racial disparities in educational outcomes persist in the United States, with Black individuals experiencing lower levels of educational attainment and a higher rate of school disciplinary actions compared to their White counterparts. Parental education is a known predictor of offspring educational attainment, but its effects may vary by race. Understanding the role of household income in mediating these effects is crucial for developing targeted policy interventions to reduce educational inequalities. Objectives: This study aimed to examine the role of household income in mediating the differential effects of maternal education on two youth educational outcomes (educational attainment by age 22 and school disciplinary action) in Black and White families. Methods: Data were drawn from the 22 years of follow-up of the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), a longitudinal study following a cohort of children born in large U.S. cities between 1998 and 2000. Participants included 1,647 Black and 689 White young adults who were followed from birth to age 22. Maternal education, household income, family structure, and paternal incarceration were assessed at baseline (birth), and two youth educational outcomes, namely educational attainment and any school disciplinary action, were assessed at age 22 (emerging adulthood). Using structural equation modeling (SEM), mediation analysis was conducted to examine whether household income partially mediates the effects of maternal education on youth educational outcomes, with race (Black vs. White) as the moderator. Results: The results indicated that maternal education was positively associated with youth educational attainment and negatively associated with school disciplinary actions in the pooled sample that included both Black and White families. However, the effect of parental education on educational attainment at age 22 was weaker for Black than White families. Household income partially mediated racial differences in the effect of maternal education on youth educational attainment. The results suggest that lower household income in Black families is why we observe a weaker effect of parental education on youth educational attainment for Black youth compared to White youth. Conclusions: Findings suggest that the lower household income of families is one of the reasons high maternal education levels are associated with lower youth educational attainment in Black than White families. Addressing income disparities through tax policies may help reduce racial disparities in education and promote educational equity for Black youth.