Background: Socioeconomic status (SES) is a well-established determinant of health, often associated with lower risk of cardiometabolic diseases (CMD). However, the extent to which SES influences CMD may vary by gender due to differences in social roles, health behaviors, and biological susceptibilities. This study examined the relationship between SES, measured by the poverty-to-income ratio (PIR), and CMD indicators—including obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (CVD)—among men and women using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Methods: This cross-sectional study utilized NHANES data (1999-2018), adjusting for race/ethnicity and age. SES was operationalized using PIR, with CMD outcomes (obesity, diabetes, and CVD) as dependent variables. Generalized linear models (GLM) were employed to evaluate the main effects of SES on CMD, with gender included as a moderator. Results: Higher SES was associated with lower overall CMD risk. However, the protective effects of SES were more pronounced in women than in men for all outcomes. These findings suggest that gender-specific pathways may mediate the relationship between SES and CMD. Women may derive greater health benefits from higher SES due to factors such as reduced stress exposure, healthier behaviors, and increased healthcare utilization. Conversely, the weaker association observed in men may reflect differences in social hierarchy sensitivity, responses to unemployment, or other contextual factors. Conclusion: The findings highlight the importance of gender-specific considerations when addressing SES-related disparities in CMD outcomes. Policies and interventions aimed at reducing CMD burden should account for these gender differences to promote equitable improvements in cardiometabolic health. Further research is needed to unravel the mechanisms driving these differences and to inform targeted strategies.

Background: Socioeconomic status (SES) is a well-established predictor of cognitive function in children, but the neurobiological pathways through which SES influences cognitive outcomes remain underexplored. This study examines the role of the cingulate gyrus (region of the brain that is involved in emotion regulation, decision-making, error detection, and cognitive control) in mediating the relationship between SES and cognitive performance, with a focus on whether these effects vary by sex. Objective: To investigate the role of the cingulate gyrus in mediating the association between social gradients (family SES) and cognitive function in children and assess potential sex differences in these pathways. Methods: Data were drawn from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Cognitive function was assessed using a composite measure of executive function and general cognitive ability. Structural MRI data were used to measure the volume of the cingulate gyrus. Path analysis was conducted to examine the mediating role of the cingulate gyrus in the association between SES and cognitive function. Interaction terms were included to test for sex differences. Results: Higher SES was significantly associated with a larger cingulate gyrus volume and better cognitive function. The volume of the left cingulate gyrus partially mediated the relationship between family and neighborhood SES and cognitive function, explaining a portion of the social gradient in cognitive outcomes. No significant sex differences were found in these mediating effects. Conclusions: The cingulate gyrus partially mediates the link between SES and cognitive function in children. These findings suggest that social disparities in cognitive function may operate, in part, through neurobiological changes such as those in the cingulate gyrus, without significant variation by sex.

Objective: This study investigates the pathways linking socioeconomic status (SES), trauma, early puberty, and tobacco use, with a focus on how these relationships differ by sex. Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, we explore how SES and race contribute to trauma exposure, which in turn may influence early puberty and tobacco use. The study also examines potential mediating effects of trauma and early puberty on the association between SES and tobacco use, while comparing these pathways for males and females. Methods: Data were drawn from the ABCD study, and structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to test direct and indirect pathways between SES, trauma, early puberty, and tobacco use. The sample was stratified by sex to assess differences in these relationships for males and females. Key predictors included SES, race, and age, while outcomes were trauma, early puberty, and tobacco use. The model assessed mediating effects of trauma and early puberty on tobacco use. Results: Trauma was a significant predictor of early puberty for females (B = 0.032, SE = 0.015, p = 0.039) but not males. Early puberty was significantly linked to tobacco use for females (B = 0.048, SE = 0.015, p = 0.001) but not for males. Additionally, trauma had an effect on tobacco use among females (B = 0.048, SE = 0.014, p < 0.001) but not males. Lower SES was significantly associated with higher trauma exposure for both males (B = -0.109, SE = 0.014, p < 0.001) and females (B = -0.110, SE = 0.015, p < 0.001). Conclusions: The findings suggest that trauma and early puberty play more significant roles in the pathways from SES to tobacco use for females than for males. While trauma and early puberty are crucial mediators for females, these factors are less predictive for males. These results highlight the importance of sex-specific interventions targeting trauma and early puberty as pathways to early tobacco use.

Background: Early life socioeconomic conditions and race/ethnicity are critical determinants of long-term health and behavioral outcomes. Epigenetic changes, particularly those measured by the GrimAge biomarker, may mediate the impact of these early adversities on later life outcomes. This study investigates the relationships between race/ethnicity, poverty at birth, epigenetic aging at age 15, and subsequent self-rated health, school discipline, depression, and school dropout at age 22. We explored sex differences in these paths. Methods: Data were drawn from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), which included 733 youth with comprehensive follow-up data up to age 22. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to assess the pathways from race/ethnicity and poverty at birth to epigenetic aging (GrimAge) at age 15, and subsequently to self-rated health and school discipline at age 22. The model controlled for potential confounders including sex, family structure, and parental education. Results: Race/ethnicity and poverty at birth were significantly associated with higher GrimAge scores at age 15 (p < 0.05). Higher GrimAge scores were predictive of poorer self-rated health (β = -0.08, p < 0.05) and increased instances of school discipline (β = 0.13, p < 0.01) at age 22. The indirect effects of race/ethnicity and poverty at birth on self-rated health and school discipline through GrimAge were also significant (p < 0.05), suggesting that epigenetic aging partially mediates these relationships. Sex differences were also observed. Poverty at birth predicted faster epigenetic aging at age 15 for males not females. We also observed that faster epigenetic aging at age 15 was predictive of school discipline of male not female participants at age 22. In contrast, faster epigenetic aging at age 15 was predictive of self-rated health (SRH) of female not male participants at age 22. Conclusions: This study provides evidence that with some sex differences, race/ethnicity and poverty at birth contribute to accelerated epigenetic aging (GrimAge) by age 15, which in turn predicts poorer self-rated health and increased school discipline issues by age 22. These findings emphasize the importance of early interventions targeting social determinants to mitigate long-term health and behavioral disparities. Addressing these early life conditions is crucial for improving health equity and outcomes in young adulthood.