The objective of this research was to investigate work-family conflict among management staff of hotels in the Accra Metropolis of Ghana. The study employs the pragmatism approach and Convergent parallel mixed methods research technique. The population of the study is all-star-rated management staff of star-rated hotels in the Accra metropolis. Stratified, random and convenient sampling techniques were used to select 182 out of 356 respondents. One hundred (100) were sampled using a formula and a table determination of sample size based on the confidence level needed from a given population as provided by Krejcie and Morgan in 1970 for the study. Ten managers were conveniently interviewed on the issues of work-family conflict. The main instruments for data collection were a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview guide. This study adopted factor analysis and a structural equation model to examine factors that influence work-family conflict. This statistical technique was used in the research to investigate the factorability of the variables of work-related and family-related factors separately and a structural equation model was used to combine both factors to better understand the relationship. Linear regression was used to determine the relationship between work-family conflict. Pearson product-moment Correlation and structural equation model were used to determine the consequences of work-family conflict. It can be concluded that both work-related such as work overload, job type and involvement as well as family-related factors such as life cycle stage, and childcare arrangement predict work-family conflict among managers of hotels in the Accra metropolis. It is also deducted WFC affect managers’ performance on the job, exhaust them emotionally and also influences their intentions to leave the job for another. Managers usually feel fatigued to prepare for work and physically drained after work. They also feel depressed and emotionally drained sometimes. It is recommended that top management of hotels should allocate a budget to build an organisational culture that encourages work-family balance. Frontline managers should be trained to be aware of the benefit of providing support in the work environment that will help staff balance work and family. It is also recommended that hotel jobs be redesigned by the human resource unit to reduce workload and make it more interesting for managers so they may not feel overworked. Overworking of managers will enhance their intentions to quit the job and this will be costly for hotels.

The hospitality industry is characterized by high human contact and work requirements that interfere with the time a person has away from the job, to spend with friends and family, and to pursue recreational pursuits, hence it is vulnerable to work-family conflict and its numerous effects. Work in the hospitality industry is notably known for having characteristics known to be detrimental to family life, such as long and irregular hours, and emphasis on face time being visible at the workplace during long working hours has been seen as a major barrier to achieving work/life balance [1]. The working conditions in the hospitality industry easily give rise to difficulties in achieving a work-life balance. In addition, some employees can work from home in certain industries such as manufacturing, but in most cases, the hospitality industry requires personal contact. Hotels never close; they are open 24 hours a day, even on religious holidays like Easter and Christmas hence, managers are entrusted to operate the affairs of the hotels successfully at every time throughout the year to maximize income. Work-family conflict leads to many other organizational consequences, such as low performance and irregular attendance at work [2]. The impacts of work-family conflict on individuals are numerous, including alcoholism, exhaustion, work depression, work anxiety and physical problems [3, 4, 5]. Work-family conflict has shown a negative relationship with work outcomes such as job satisfaction and lateness to work [6].

Moreover, most research on work and family conflict issues in the hospitality industry has focused on employees of the hospitality industry. For instance, carried out a study on factors of work-family conflict among employees in the hospitality industry [7]. A study on work-family conflict and enrichment of hotel employees, this study seeks to focus on the management staff perspective since the actions of managers in the hotel superintend all the activities of the hotel [8]. Scant attention has been given to the issue of work-family conflict among management staff of the hospitality industry, despite growing evidence of its detrimental impact on them. Most managers have difficulties in combining work and family roles; however, those roles tend to interfere with each other making it more challenging to fulfill work demands thereby lowering the performance and productivity of managers [9]. The study sought to answer this research question and hypotheses - What are the effects of work-family conflict among the management staff of star-rated hotels in the Accra Metropolis? H4. There is no significant effect of age, marital status, sex, or educational background of managers on work-related factors. H5 There is no significant effect of age, marital status, sex, or educational background of managers on family-related factors.

1.1. Effect of Work-family Conflict on Employees

Most authors have described the Effects of work-family conflict as when an individual does not feel that there is an excellent union of work and family roles and that this condition will result in the experience of negative outcomes because of interference between work and family duties [10, 11]. Work-family conflict has an extensive influence on the health conditions of an individual in various forms including depression and emotional exhaustion [12]. It is also known to influence an individual’s work as in job performance and productivity. It also has effects on vocational ambition and increases the possibility of an employee having the intention to quit his or her job [13]. An empirical study of 148 hotel managers in Hong Kong revealed that stress from the family, caused by work-family conflicts, results in the tendency for an individual to experience high levels of subjective distress, nervousness, and feelings of anger, depression, and fear [14]. In this case, managers become less productive at the workplace because demands from the family reduce the effort at work. Others also think of quitting their jobs [14]. This therefore may affect work activities, productivity and the survival of the organization.

Among working women in Taiwan, a study found that work-family conflict was strongly linked with lower jobs and family dissatisfaction, greater stress and more severe physical ailments [15]. Mental health can also be disturbed due to minor differences in the work-family understanding. Working women become overburdened in an attempt to juggle the duties and responsibilities in the home and those of the work environment. They become physically worn-out, emotionally exhausted, and frustrated, and develop minor illnesses such as headaches and joint pains. [15]. All these come about as a result of experiencing incompatible roles and responsibilities from both work and family domains. Researchers found a consistent positive relationship between long working hours, workload and work-family conflict [16]. In the same way, studies revealed that work demands have the tendency to cause adverse effects on an individual’s health in the form of physical and psychological health deterioration. People who experience the WFC often feel depressed, and physically drained from having to deal with the incompatibility of their work duties and family roles [16, 17]

A study in Toronto, Canada, found that family-to-work conflict has a positive association with anxiety and depression among unemployed males and females, and the effects of home-to-work conflict were felt by both males and females [18]. It was also noted that females tend to experience greater anxiety than men and such conflict and emotional or mental distress were strongly associated among women with job routine jobs and among men in harmful environments, job performances and turnover intentions [19, 20, 21]. Emotional exhaustion is more personal or individualistic and tends to affect the mental stability of an individual and appears to be prevalent among employees in people-oriented jobs such as hospitality jobs and more specifically hotel jobs among frontline employees [22]. Empirical research indicates that employees who are experiencing higher levels of work-family conflict are more likely to be emotionally exhausted. Job performance is described as the level of productivity of an individual employee in relation to his or her peers [19, 23]. Evidence indicates that the negative effects of family-work conflict contribute to the decrease in employees’ work-related performance [20]. The intentions are that some employees have to leave their current jobs in hotels as a result of the incompatibility between the roles of their work and family. A study conducted in the USA showed that half of 149 respondents reported that they have the intention to quit their jobs in hotels because of incompatible work and family roles that they have [24]. Researchers emphasized that all stakeholders must work towards work and family balance. Moreover, work-family conflict negatively affects the different members of the work organization as well as members of the family. Furthermore, the upshots of work-family conflicts are poor work performance and a decrease in productivity due to tardiness, absenteeism, excessive use of the telephone, absence in meetings, and difficulty in concentrating and all these will result in higher turnover, lower commitment, and poorer work morale [25]. The study by Duxbury and Higgins in 2015 has shown that work and family conflicts are both an issue for the employer and the employee and that the inability to have this resolved will lead to outcomes of marital problems, reduced family and life satisfaction, and as such will affect the general health and wellbeing of the employees due to stress, burnout, and depression. The authors have clearly pointed out that should employees prioritize their responsibilities at home, they may ruin their career chances and conversely, if these employees experience fatigue due to work-related stress, primarily due to unabated and long working hours, they may not be able to perform their responsibilities with their families. Moreover, employees who experience work-life conflicts are stressed because they have perceived that they do not have ascendancy in the fulfilment of the roles that they are supposed to assume and as such, they will be more likely to be absent from work or leave the organization later on because they lack the commitment and the motivation [26, 27].

Consistent with stressors associated with the job itself and work demands, shift work (which has been defined as work during nonstandard hours) and the number of hours worked have a significant effect on the physical, psychological, and emotional well-being of employees. Shift work and work schedules falling on the weekends and holidays which is a characteristic of the hotel industry have been somewhat blamed on marriage and childcare problems and this has proven to be very difficult to resolve, in order to bring about a work-family balance. Based on the theoretical models put forth by previous and recent studies, work-family conflicts affect individual health and well-being, and this will ultimately modify a person’s performance of work and family roles in a negative way [28, 29]. Thus, as explained by these models workers who are struggling to balance their family and work, are likely to report chronic job stress [30].

Work-family conflict, job autonomy, and workload were found to be associated with work exhaustion and job satisfaction. Exhaustion was negatively related to job satisfaction, as predicted, and job satisfaction was positively related to organizational commitment and negatively related to turnover intention, as predicted in both cases [31]. Aside from these associations, work-family conflicts have been found to be generally negatively associated with various satisfaction measures such as life satisfaction, marital satisfaction, family satisfaction and leisure satisfaction. The meta-analyses of a study found a negative relationship between work-family conflict and marital satisfaction, family satisfaction and life satisfaction [32]. There is growing evidence that supports the notion that work-family conflict leads to poor physical health, poor perceived health, and depressive behaviour (based on self-evaluation) [32, 33, 34]. Work-family conflict negatively affects physical and mental health [35]. It causes physical health problems like hypertension, obesity, high cholesterol levels, lower physical stamina and behaviours like overeating, skipping meals, and devoting less time and energy to exercise [10, 35, 36]. Other authors report the following symptoms: problems with sleep, headaches, fatigue, chest pains, and alcohol abuse [37]. Consistent research findings prove that increased work-family conflict brings negative psychological consequences as well. The average weighted correlation between conflict and general psychological strain is 0.29, whereas the correlation with depression is 0.32 [32].

One of the pressing psychological consequences is burnout which represents “energy leakage,” a consequence of long-term stress at work and has been related to conflict [39, 40]. A meta-analytic study shows that the correlation between the cause and effect is relatively strong (average weighted ρ = 0.42) [32]. In a study of Dutch hotel managers, burnout was measured with two facets - emotional exhaustion (a sense of emptiness, lack of emotional resources) and depersonalization (a mood in which negative and cynical attitudes dominate). The correlations with work-family conflict were 0.51 and 0.32, respectively [41].

Turnover intention is another consequence that brings costs to the organization and is related to work-family conflict. By leaving a job, a person conserves individual resources (time, energy) that would otherwise be lost from the stress caused by the work role [42]. Different studies report the positive influence of conflict on turnover intention [42, 43]. Meta-analytic studies also confirm the positive nature of the relationship. Turnover intention is, in fact, the variable, which is most strongly correlated with work-family conflict (ρ = 0.29) and even stronger is the correlation in another meta-analysis (ρ = 0.32) [32, 44]. The intensification of work-family conflict increases the probability of turnover in different professions, including academics [42]. An interesting finding in one American study was that gender was a significant predictor of turnover intention, with women being less likely to leave a job [42]. Work-family conflict also leads to actual withdrawal from the company [45]. The existing studies regarding absenteeism, as a consequence of conflicting role demands, show mixed results and different strengths of relationships. When the longitudinal relationship between work-family conflict and company records of absenteeism was studied, it was found that the bivariate relationship was insignificant. However, regression results did indicate a significant relationship once child-care facilities were implemented [46]. A study of 432 employees found that women with a strong work-family conflict exhibit absenteeism, whereas they did not find this relationship among men [46]. As it turned out, the relationship between perceived conflict and leaving early was stronger for employees with family responsibilities [47].

The study employs the pragmatism approach and Convergent parallel mixed methods research techniques. The population of the study is all-star-rated management staff of star-rated hotels in the Accra metropolis. This includes general managers and departmental managers such as food and beverage managers, front office managers, housekeeping managers, hotel sales and marketing managers and finance and administrative managers. Stratified, random and convenient sampling techniques were used to select 182 out of 356 respondents. Stratified and random sampling techniques were used to select 55, from 1 star and 36 from 2 star hotels to ensure that they were adequately represented. Moreover, all the hotels in the 3-star, 4-star and five-star categories were all selected due to their small size. One hundred (100) were sampled using a formula and a table determination of sample size based on the confidence level needed from a given population as provided by Krejcie and Morgan in 1970 for the study. Ten managers were conveniently interviewed on the issues of work-family conflict. The main instruments for data collection were a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview guide. The questionnaire was illicit for data on the perception of the effect of work-family conflict on management staff. All the variables used five-point Likert-type scales (from 1: strongly disagree to 5: strongly agree). In this study, work-related and family-related conflicts were independent variables. Seven items are used to measure each conflict adapted from Boles and Howard in 2001[48]. To measure the dependent variable, emotional exhaustion this study adopted Maslach and Jackson’s seven items [49]. For turnover intention, it utilized six items that were developed by Allen and Meyer [50]. Finally, four items of Williams and Anderson’s research operationalised the last dependent variable job performance [51]. Semi-structured interview guides were used to elicit information from managers of the star-rated hotels on manager’s perception of the consequence of work-family conflict. Interview guides were adopted because of the creation of verbal behaviour and flexibility for managers to express their views on work-family conflict issues and also initiate a process of asking a follow-up question to the interviewee. The qualitative data was analysed by the use of the interpretative technique based on the themes arrived at during the data collection from the interview. This study adopted factor analysis and a structural equation model to examine factors that influence work-family conflict. This statistical technique was used in the research to investigate the factorability of the variables of work-related and family-related factors separately and a structural equation model was used to combine both factors to better understand the relationship. Pearson product-moment Correlation and structural equation model were used to determine the consequences of work-family conflict.

This section presents results and discusses the effect of work-family conflict from the perspective of hotel management staff Available literature has indicated that consequences of work-family conflict are categorised into turnover intention, emotional exhaustion and on-the-job performance. The analysis was based on these three contexts.

3.1. The Effect of work-family Conflict on Management Staff

The consequences of work-family conflicts were categorized into three according to literature, Turnover intentions (TI), Emotional Exhaustion (EE), and Job Performance (JP) each comprising six (6), seven (7), and four (4) items respectively. Generally, the results showed that the individual variables of Turnover Intentions were strongly correlated albeit the findings opined that, a relatively weak positive correlation (rho = .491) and (rho = .424) was observed between “TI 19 and TI 22” and “TI 19 and TI 24” respectively. Regarding Emotional Exhaustion, results indicated that the individuals’ items were strongly positively correlated with a recorded rho > 0.5. Likewise, study findings from Job Performance disclosed that the items were strongly positively correlated (rho > .5). The results show that there is a moderate positive correlation of .642 between managers looking for another job in the near future and quitting current job if there is an opportunity because of conflict with work and family roles. This means that as managers’ perception of looking for another job in the near future increases, their perception of quitting their current job because of conflict with work and family roles also increases.

Table 1 indicates that there is a moderate positive correlation of .662 between managers often thinking of leaving this job and looking for another job in the near future. This indicates that as the level of managers thinking of leaving their jobs increases, their perception of looking for another job in the near future also increases. The result shows comparable but stronger results, as the level of managers often thinking of leaving their job increases, their perception of quitting their current job because of conflict with work and family role (.770) increases. The table further shows the largest positive relationship of .803 which is between managers having been looking for advertisement for a new job and managers revising their CV for a new job. This therefore means that there is a strong linear relationship between the two variables; hence as the perception of managers increases towards looking for advertisements for a new job, their perception of revising their CV for a new job strongly increases. The smallest positive relationship of .424 was recorded between managers having been looking for an advertisement for a new job and looking for another job in the near future. Some managers have left their current jobs in the hotel as a result of incompatibility between the roles of their work and the family [52]. The result of the study confirms the result of a study conducted in the USA hotel managers which showed that more than half of 149 respondents reported that they have the intention to quit their jobs in hotels because of incompatible work and family roles that they have [24]. The result of this study is also consistent with previous research and established that work-family conflict increases the possibility of an employee having the intention to quit his or her job [53]. This result was not supported in the interview with hotel managers. The interview with hotel managers reviewed that eight out of the ten hotel managers did not have the intention to leave their current jobs This is evident from one of the managers interviewed; “Why will I quit, because the pressure is everywhere, although the hotel industry is a stressed one I have to manage the conflict. “(General Manager, three-star hotel, Accra.7/3/2023).

TI 19: I will be looking for another job in the near future; TI 20: I feel like quitting my current job if I get an opportunity because of the problem I have with my work and family roles; TI 21: I often think of leaving this job; TI 22: I have even made contact to get a new job; TI 23: I have revised my CV for a new job; TI 24: I have been looking for advertisement for a new job.

EE 25: I feel emotionally drained from my work as a result of the conflict between my work-family roles; EE 26: I feel used up at the end of my workday because of juggling between work and family roles; EE 27: I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and have to face another job task for the day as a result of the work-family conflict; EE 28: I feel worried when my work roles and family roles are incompatible; EE 29: I feel depressed when I have work-family conflict; EE 30: I feel frustrated from the demands of family life; EE 31: I sometimes get distracted with the demands of my work With regards to emotional exhaustion, the table indicated that the individuals’ items were strongly positively correlated. The results show that there is a moderate positive correlation of .697 between managers feeling worried when their work roles and family roles are incompatible and managers feeling emotionally drained from work as a result of the conflict between work and family roles. This means that as managers’ perception of feeling worried when their work roles and family roles are incompatible increases, their feeling for emotional drainage also increases. The result shows comparable but stronger result, as the level of managers’ perception of feeling worried when their work roles and family roles are incompatible increases, their perception of feeling used up at the end of their workday because of juggling between work and family roles also better increases (.707).

Table 1 further shows the largest positive relationship of .819 which is between managers feeling used up at the end of their workday because of juggling between work and family roles and managers feeling emotionally drained from their work as a result of the conflict between my work-family roles. This therefore means that there is a stronger linear relationship between the two variables; hence as the perception of managers feeling used up at the end of their workday because of juggling between work and family roles increases, their perception of feeling emotionally drained strongly increases. The smallest positive relationship of .603 was recorded between managers sometimes getting distracted by the demands of their work and managers feeling worried when work roles and family roles are incompatible. The result of this study is consistent with an earlier study that getting emotionally drained was a very common consequence of work-family conflict [54]. This result further affirms with previous study that hotel managers who are experiencing higher levels of work-family conflict are more likely to be emotionally exhausted [55]. Hotel managers feeling stressed and worried emerged as one issue associated with the consequences of work-family conflict in the quantitative study. Seven of the managers interviewed confirmed that it was an issue associated with the consequences of work-family conflict. This was evident from a manager interviewed:

“Just imagine your wife is sick and you are being called to work, you will be stressed up at work and you are also worried about your sick wife you have left in the house, as a result of this you will be frustrated at the workplace”. (A manager, 2-star hotel, Accra,8/3/2023).

JP 32: I am not among the best-performing employees in the hotel because of family responsibilities; JP 33: I cannot fulfil the expectations of my customers and others because of my divided attention between work and family; JP 34: Family issues sometimes reduce my work contact, therefore not able to meet my target at work; JP 35: I am not punctual at work because of family responsibilities. Job performance is described as the level of productivity of an individual employee in relation to his or her peers [12]. Available literature has shown the negative effects of family-work conflict that contribute to the decrease in employees’ work-related performance [27]. With regard to job performance results further disclosed that the variables were strongly positively correlated (rho > .6). The largest positive relationship obtained was .874 which is between managers unable to fulfil their expectations of customers and others because of divided attention between work and family and managers not being among the best-performing employees in the hotel because of family responsibilities. This means there is a stronger linear relationship between the variables, as the level of manager’s perception increases towards inability to fulfil the expectations of customers because of divided attention between work and family, their perception of not being among the best-performing employees in the hotel because of family responsibilities strongly increases.

The relationship between managers’ family issues sometimes reduces their work contact, therefore not being able to meet their target at work and managers not among the best-performing employees in the hotel because of family responsibilities also recorded a higher positive relationship of .816. This means that as the perception of managers on family issues sometimes reduces their work contact, therefore not being able to meet their target at work increases, managers’ perception of not being among the best-performing employees in the hotel because of family responsibilities strongly increases. The least positive relationship of .729 was between managers not being punctual at work because of family responsibilities and managers not being able to fulfil the expectations of their customers and others because of their divided attention between work and family

The result of this study affirms that work-family conflict negatively and significantly influences the job performance of hotel managers [56]. The study was inconsistent with an earlier research finding that work-family conflict has no significance and a low relationship with job performance [57]. Previous studies concluded that the relationship between work-family conflict and job performance is significant but negative [58, 59, 60]. Both studies produce the same conclusion with a similar study that work-family conflict has a significant effect on performance but negatively [61]. Hotel managers were asked in the interview about their perception of how work-family conflict affects job performance. Ten managers reported a negative effect of work-family conflict on their job performance. This was evident in an interview with one of the managers

“Obviously. WFC affects my performance at work, it affects my attention at work, work that is supposed to be done in 1 hour will take more than 2 hours to accomplish. Conflict in the home affect my attention at work hence do not meet deadline set at work”. (A manager, 1-star hotel, Accra. 8/3/2023).

3.2. Exploratory Factor Analysis: Dimensionality of Outcome of Work-family Conflict Construct

Exploratory factor analysis and structural equation models were conducted to further understand the outcome of work-family conflict. The Outcome of the Work-Family Conflict (OWFC) Construct was made up of three sub-constructs, namely, the Turnover Intentions (TOI) sub-construct, the Emotional Exhaustion (EME) sub-construct, Job Performance (JOP) sub-construct. The EFA was conducted to assess the unidimensionality and reliability of each component. Maximum Likelihood with Varimax rotation (ML Varimax) was specified as the extraction and rotation method. Tables 10.19 to 10.21 present the results.

From Table 4, there were six items measuring the Turnover Intentions (TOI) sub-construct. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) of 0.884 with Bartlett’s test of sphericity of p<0.000 was also obtained, indicating consistency with the recommended KMO cut-off value of 0.70 and Bartlett's test of sphericity of p<0.05 suggested by Hair et al. (2017). These results suggested that factor analysis could be conducted with the data. All six items (TOI1, TOI2, TOI3, TOI4, TOI5 and TOI6) are expected to measure TOI loaded together on this sub-construct. Using a threshold of 0.5 for factor loading, all the items had their factor loading exceeding 0.5 for the sub-construct. They are “I have been looking for advertisements for a new job”, “I have revised my CV for a new job”, “I have even made contact to get a new job”, and “I feel like quitting my current job if I get an opportunity because of the problem I have with my work and family roles”, “I often think of leaving this job” and “I will be looking for another job in the near future”. These items measure TOI. Again, the corrected item-total correlation for the five remaining items was greater than the suggested cut-off value of 0.30, suggesting that the items were good measures of the element and that Cronbach’s alpha was greater than 0.800 at 0.929, indicating acceptable internal reliability [62].

Table 5, shows that there were seven items measuring the Emotional Exhaustion (EME) sub-construct. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) of 0.889 with Bartlett’s test of sphericity of p<0.000 was also obtained, indicating consistency with the recommended KMO cut-off value of 0.70 and Bartlett's test of sphericity of p<0.05 suggested by Hair et al. (2017). These results suggested that factor analysis could be conducted with the data. All the seven items (EME1, EME2, EME3, EME4, EME5, EME6 and EME7) are expected to measure EMW loaded together on this component. Using a threshold of 0.5 for factor loading, some of the items also had their threshold exceeding 0.5. This excluded “I feel worried when my work roles and family roles are incompatible”, which loaded below the threshold of 0.5 respectively, thus, making them a bad representation of any of the four components. Eight items recorded a threshold more than 0.5. They are “I feel emotionally drained from my work as a result of the conflict between my work-family roles”, “I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and have to face another job task for the day as a result of work-family conflict”, “I sometimes get distracted with the demands of my work”, “I feel used up at the end of the work day because of juggling between work and family roles”, “I feel frustrated from the demands of family life” and “I feel depressed when I have work-family conflict”. These items measured EME. Again, the corrected item-total correlation for six remaining items was greater than the suggested cut-off value of 0.30, suggesting that the items were good measures of the element and the Cronbach’s alpha was greater than 0.800 at 0.935, indicating acceptable internal reliability [62].

From Table 6, there were four items measuring the Job Performance (JOP) sub-construct. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) of 0.818 with Bartlett’s test of sphericity of p<0.000 was also obtained, indicating consistency with the recommended KMO cut-off value of 0.70 and Bartlett's test of sphericity of p<0.05 suggested by previous study [63]. These results suggested that factor analysis could be conducted with the data. All four items (CMW1, JOP1, JOP2, JOP3 and JOP4) are expected to measure JOP loaded together on this sub-construct.

Using a threshold of 0.5 for factor loading, all four items also had their threshold exceeding 0.5. They are “I cannot fulfil the expectations of my customers and others because of my divided attention between work and family”, “Family issues sometimes reduce my work contact, therefore not able to meet my target at work”, “I am not among the best-performing employees in the hotel because of family responsibilities” and “I am not Punctual at work because of family responsibilities”. These items measured JOP. Again, the corrected item-total correlation for four items was greater than the suggested cut-off value of 0.30, suggesting that the items were good measures of the element and that Cronbach’s alpha was greater than 0.800 at 0.953, indicating acceptable internal reliability [62].

3.3. Structural Equation Model (SEM) for Outcome of Work-family Conflict Construct

After the constructs demonstrated sufficient evidence of unidimensionality and reliability using EFA, a CFA was administered. The analysis strategy of goodness of fit for the Outcome of the Work-family Conflict Construct followed a three statistics strategy of fit indexes as recommended by [64]. The sample data on the DAR model yielded the S – Bχ2 of 3.453 with 87 degrees of freedom (df) with a probability of p = 0.0000. This chi-square value indicated that the departure of the sample data from the postulated curriculum model was significant and hence, indicative of a good fit. The chi-square test is very sensitive to sample size and is used more as a descriptive index of fit rather than as a statistical test [65]. The CFI value was found to be 0.917 which was greater than the cut-off limit of 0.90 so the model is described to be acceptable. The NFI value was 0.901 which is within the given range, but the given cut-off value of NFI ≥ .90 as shown in Table 7. Therefore, the model is acceptable. The PNFI value obtained is 0.736 which is also below the cut-off value of 0.80. Also, the RMR of 0.021 is smaller than 0.05 and the GFI value of 0.905 is greater than 0.90. These fit indexes for the IPC model suggested that the postulated model adequately describes the sample data and could therefore be included in the full latent variable model analysis (Table 7).

A unidimensional model for IPC features is presented (Table 8). Out of the 17 indicator variables, 16 were obtained and used for the final CFA analysis. [66]. From the 156 cases analysed for this construct, 16 indicator variables made up of three components realised as TOI (TOI1, TOI2, TOI3, TOI4 and TOI5), EME (EME1, EME2, EME3, EME4, EME5 and EME6) and JOP (JOP1, JOP2, JOP3 and JOP4).

Figure 1

CFA Model for Outcome of Work-family Conflict Construct

Table 9 shows the correlation values, standard errors and the test of statistics of the final sixteen-indicator model. All the correlation values were less than 1.00, and all the p-values were less than the significant value of 0.05 and showed appropriate signs. The estimates were therefore deemed reasonable, as well as statistically significant. The parameter with the highest standardised coefficient was the indicator with variable JOP3 and its parameter coefficient was 0.954.

Most of the parameter estimates had high correlation values close to 1.00. The high correlation values suggest a high degree of linear association between the indicator variables and the unobserved variables (TOI, EME and JOP). In addition, the R Square values were also close to the desired value of 1.00 indicating that the factors explained more of the variance in the indicator variables. The results, therefore, suggest that the indicator variables significantly predict the unobserved sub-constructs, because all the measured variables are significantly associated with the three sub-constructs (TOI, EME and JOP) under the Outcome of Work-family Conflict Construct.

3.4. Hypothesised Relation for the Structural Models

The hypothesised models were tested. The hypothesised models were fitted to the data for the entire sample and, as is the norm, covariance for all the exogenous factors and variables were specified. As with all of the analyses presented in this study, the testing of this model was based on robust ML estimation and robust statistics were used to ascertain the fit of the model. The robust solution adjusts for non-normality in the data. As is the norm in SEM analyses, one variable loading per latent factor was set equal to 1.0 in order to set the metric for that factor [65]. The following presents the results.

3.5. Testing the Influence of the Factors of Work-Family Conflict on the Outcome of Work-family Conflict

The structural equation model in AMOS was executed to check the effect of factors of work-family conflict on the outcome of work-family conflict. The study confirmed that the model fits the provided values in the acceptable range as recommended by [64]. The sample data yielded the S – Bχ2 of 2.638 with 371 degrees of freedom (df) with a probability of p = 0.0000. This chi-square value indicated that the departure of the sample data from the postulated curriculum model was significant and hence, indicative of a good fit for a model for the effect of factors of work-family conflict on the outcome of work-family conflict. It also suggested that the postulated model adequately describes the sample data. SEM model for the effect of factors of work-family conflict on the outcome of work-family conflict features are presented (Figure 2).

Table 10 shows the correlation values, standard errors and the test of statistics. All the correlation values were less than 1.00, and all the p-values were smaller than 0.05 significant level. The parameter with the highest standardized coefficient was the FRF on JOP and its parameter coefficient was 0.811.

The R Square values indicate that WRF and FRF explained 49.9 per cent, 55.2 per cent and 69 per cent of the variance in TOI, EME and JOP respectively. The results, therefore, suggest that both WRF and FRF significantly influence TOI, EME and JOP. However, only WRF is not significant at the 1% level. Thus, care must be taken in the relationship between WRF and JOP.

The result further shows the largest positive relationship of .803 which is between managers having been looking for advertisement for a new job and managers revising their CV for a new job. With regards to emotional exhaustion, the result indicated that the individuals’ items were strongly positively correlated. The results show that there is a moderate positive correlation of .697 between managers feeling worried when their work roles and family roles are incompatible and managers feeling emotionally drained from work as a result of the conflict between work and family roles. With regard to job performance, the result further disclosed that the variables were strongly positively correlated (rho > .6). The largest positive relationship obtained was .874 which is between managers unable to fulfil their expectations of customers and others because of divided attention between work and family and managers not being among the best-performing employees in the hotel because of family responsibilities.

Figure 2

SEM for the effect of the Factors of Work-Family Conflict on the Outcome of Work-family Conflict

It can be concluded that both work-related such as work overload, job type and involvement as well as family-related factors such as life cycle stage, and childcare arrangement predict work-family conflict among managers of hotels in the Accra metropolis. It is also deducted WFC affect managers’ performance on the job, exhaust them emotionally and also influences their intentions to leave the job for another. Managers usually feel fatigued to prepare for work and physically drained after work. They also feel depressed and emotionally drained sometimes. WFC was also known to affect the productivity of managers negatively in the Accra metropolis. Moreover, WFC was known to contribute to hotel managers’ intention to quit their jobs. Managers put in less effort towards family activities due to work-family conflict by sometimes becoming irritable at home. It is recommended that top management of hotels should allocate a budget to build an organisational culture that encourages work-family balance. Frontline managers should be trained to be aware of the benefit of providing support in the work environment that will help staff balance work and family. Managers of hotels should engage family support mechanisms such as paid childcare services at home so that they lessen if not eliminate the effect of work-family conflict. The issues of work overload are a major contributing factor to WFC. It is also recommended that hotel jobs be redesigned by the human resource unit to reduce workload and make it more interesting for managers so they may not feel overworked. Overworking of managers will enhance their intentions to quit the job and this will be costly for hotels.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization SO, AB, KG and SD; methodology, SO, AB, KG and SD; validation, SO, AB, KG and SD; formal analysis, SO, AB and SD.; investigation, SO, AB, KG and SD.; resources, SO, AB, KG and SD.; data curation, AB; writing—original draft preparation, AB; writing—review and editing, SD, and AB; visualization, SO, and AB; supervision, SO and AB.; project administration, SO, AB, KG and SD; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: “This research received no external funding”

Data Availability Statement: Data is available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgements: We acknowledge the participants in this study.

Conflicts of Interest: “The authors declare no conflict of interest.” “No funders had any role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results”.