Background: Sleep deprivation is increasingly prevalent among young adults due to academic, occupational, and social demands, making them susceptible to circadian disruption. Executive functioning—encompassing working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility is essential for academic and professional success. This meta-analysis quantifies the effect of sleep deprivation on executive functioning in healthy young adults. Practical Implications: These findings highlight the need for evidence-based interventions such as university-level sleep education programs, flexible academic scheduling, and workplace policies promoting adequate sleep to optimize cognitive performance and productivity among young adults. Methods: Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, PubMed, Scopus, PsycINFO, and Web of Science were searched (January 2000–March 2024) for studies assessing acute (<6 hours sleep or ≥24 hours total deprivation) or chronic (<6 hours/night over multiple days) sleep deprivation in young adults. Outcomes included validated executive function tests (e.g., Stroop, N-Back). Random-effects meta-analysis (Hedges’ g) was conducted using R (version 4.3.2) with metafor/meta packages. Heterogeneity (I², Q-test), sensitivity (leave-one-out), and publication bias (funnel plot, Egger’s test) were evaluated. Results: Out of 2,478 screened studies, 39 met inclusion criteria (n=4,578). Sleep deprivation had a moderate-to-large detrimental effect on executive functioning (Hedges’ g = -0.62, 95% CI [-0.78, -0.45], p<0.001). Subdomain analysis revealed greatest impairment in working memory (g = -0.71), followed by inhibitory control (g = -0.59) and cognitive flexibility (g = -0.49) (all p<0.001). Moderate heterogeneity was present (I² = 58%), with results robust to sensitivity analysis. Egger’s test indicated no significant publication bias (p=0.22). Interpretation: Sleep deprivation significantly impairs executive functioning in young adults, especially working memory. Interventions improve sleep may enhance cognitive performance and should be integrated into public health strategies and educational policies. Future research should assess chronic restriction and individual vulnerability factors.

Objective: Inequalities exist in children’s educational outcomes—including reading proficiency, school discrimination, and school disciplinary actions—across zip codes with different levels of educational childhood opportunity index (COI). This study examines the interaction between race and educational environment on children’s educational outcomes. We hypothesize that race, parental education, and their interaction are associated with perceived school discrimination, which in turn reduces their cognitive, academic, and emotional wellbeing. We also hypothesize that Black children with high socioeconomic status (SES) report high perceived school discrimination in high-COI settings. Methods: Data were drawn from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, which measures a wide range of educational, cognitive, and emotional outcomes. At the same time, the ABCD children are sampled across areas with vast differences in COI rankings, that can be classified into these five categories: very high, high, average, low, and very low educational COIs. Our structural equation models (SEM) tested the additive and interactive effects of race and educational attainment on perceived school discrimination, and the effects of school discrimination on various cognitive abilities (reading proficiency, picture vocabulary, and list sorting working memory), school suspension, as well as depressed mood. Our multi-group SEM assessed how these relationships vary across educational COI levels. Results: Our findings showed that high SES Black children report highest school discrimination in residential areas with highest COIs. This is based on the observation that the interaction between race and parental education on experiences of school discrimination were only significant in areas with highest COI. Across residential areas with different COI levels, students who experienced higher school discrimination had higher suspension, worse depression, and worse cognitive performance. Conclusion: While higher COIs are associated with better academic outcomes, Black-White gaps exist in the role of increased COI through increased racial bias that children perceive. These findings underscore the complexity of educational equity, suggesting that improving COI alone is insufficient for eliminating racial disparities in school experiences. Policies should be in place to reduce school-based discrimination against Black students in high COI settings.